ef;fPud;

jkpoH rkak; vJ? ,J vd;d Nfs;tp? irt rkak;jhd; jkpoUila rkak;. mJ 14>000 Mz;L goik tha;e;j rkak;. rpe;Jntsp ehfupf fhyj;jpYk; irt rkak; jioj;J ,Ue;jpUf;fpwJ vd;gjw;F rhd;Wfs; Vuhsk; cz;L vd;W irtHfs; thjpLfpwhHfs;.

flTs;> kjk;> nkhop ,tw;Wf;Fj; njhd;ikahd tuyhW ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;. mg;gb ,Ue;jhy; kl;LNk mit Nkyhdit> caHthdit vd;w xU jtwhd vz;zk; jkpoHfsplk; ,Ug;gjhy;jhd; ,g;gb mwpTf;F xj;Jtuhj> tuyhw;Wf;F Kuzhd Guhzf; fijfis nrhy;y Ntz;ba fl;lhak; vOfpwJ.

kdpjdJ tuyhw;Wf; fhyj;jpy; 14>000 Mz;Lfs; ePz;l fhyk; my;y. Mdhy; kdpjd; jd;idg;gw;wp fy;ypYk;> fspkz;zpYk;> NjhypYk; Fwpg;Gf;fs; vOjpa fhyj;NjhL xg;gpl;Lg;  ghHj;jhy; 14>000 Mz;Lfs; kpf ePz;l fhykhFk;.

khe;j ,dk; kdpjf; FUq;fpy; ,Ue;J gpupe;J jdpNa tsHr;rp milaj; njhlq;fpa fhyk; RkhH 30 ,yl;rk; Mz;Lfs; ,Uf;Fk; vd kdpjEhyhH (Anthropologists) nrhy;fpwhHfs;. me;j kdpjf; Fuq;F ,dk;  Hominids vd;W miof;fg;gl;lhHfs;.

mjd;gpd; cU kyHr;rpapy; (evolution) 18-10 ,yl;rk; Mz;LfSf;F Kd;dH NfhNkh ,wf;l]; ( Homo- erectus ) vd;w khe;j ,dk; Njhd;wpaJ. ,tHfs; Mgpupf;fh> Mrpah fz;lq;fspy; 300>000 Mz;Lfs; Kd;tiu tho;e;jhHfs;.

mtHfisj; njhlHe;J NfhNkh Nrg;gpad;]; (Home-sapiens) Njhd;wpdhHfs;. ,tHfsJ fhyk; 200>000-300>000 Mz;LfshFk;. ,tHfisj; njhlHe;J epahe;jHjhy; (Neanderthal) vd;w khe;j ,dk; Njhd;wpaJ.

gpd;dH 40>000-30>000 Mz;Ltiu ,d;iwa etPd kdpjd; Njhd;wpdhd;. epahe;jHjhy; kdpjd; rpy fhyk; kdpjNdhL rk fhyj;jpy; tho;e;jJk; cz;L. Mdhy; epahe;jHjhy; kdpjHfs; 27>000 Mz;lstpy; Kw;whf kiwe;J NghdhHfs;.

njhy;ypashHfsJ fz;Nzhl;lj;jpy; khe;j ,dj;jpd; ehfupf tsHr;rpf; fhyj;ijg; gpd;tUkhW tupirg; gLj;jyhk;.

gioa fw;fhyk;   - 20 ,yl;rk; Mz;Lfs;
,ilf; fw;fhyk;   - fp.K. 10>500- 4>300
Gjpa fw;fhyk;    - fp.K.4>300- 3300
ntz;fyf; fhyk;  - fp.K. 3300 - 1200
,Ug;Gf; fhyk;    - fp.K.1200- 586

rpe;Jntsp ehfupfk; (fug;gd; kw;Wk; nkhnfd;[jhNuh)              - fp.K. 3000- 1900

kj;jpa Mrpahtpy; ,Ue;J te;j MupaH FbNaw;wk; rpe;J gs;sj;jhf;F - fp.K.1300
MupaH FbNaw;wk; fq;if gs;sj;jhf;F                         - fp.K.1000
,Uf;F Ntjk;                                             - fp.K. 1200- 900
,uhkhaz fhyk;                                          - fp.K. 1500
ghuj fhyk;                                               - fp.K.1300
Vida Ntjq;fs; cgepljq;fs;                                - fp.K.500
kfhtPuH fhyk; - fp.K.550
Gj;jH fhyk; - fp.K. 563-483

NkNy jug;gl;Ls;s juTfs; tuyhw;Wf;F Ke;jpa (fp.K.3000-1200) kdpj ehfupf tsHr;rpapd; Kf;fpa iky; fw;fs; MFk;.

rpe;Jntsp kf;fs; irt rkaj;jtH my;yJ ehy;Ntj kjj;jtHfs; vd;W xU thjj;Jf;F itj;Jf; nfhz;lhy; $l mjd; fhyk; 5>000 Mz;Lfs; kl;LNk. mjdhy; irtk; 14>000 Mz;Lfshf epiyj;J tUfpwJ vd;w $w;W Kw;wpYk; caHT etpHr;rpNa!

,d;W jkpopy; fpilf;ff; $ba kpfg; goikahd Ehy; njhy;fhg;gpak;. ,J xU ,yf;fz Ehy;.

,jid ,aw;wpatH njhy;fhg;gpaH. ,tuJ fhyk; vJntd;W mwpjpapl;Lr; nrhy;y KbahJ ,Uf;fpwJ. vdpDk; ,tH ,ilr; rq;f fhyj;ijr; NrHe;jtH vd;W nrhy;yg;gLfpwJ. vdNt ,tH fp.K.500-300 ,ilapy; tho;e;jpUf;fyhk; vd mwpQHfs; fUJfpwhHfs;.

vJ vg;gb ,Ug;gpDk; njhy;fhg;gpak; jkpo;kf;fspd; kpfg; goikahd xU rKjhaf; fl;Lkhdj;ij glk; gpbj;Jf; fhl;LfpwJ vd;gjpy; ma;ak; vJTkpy;iy.

FwpQ;rp epy (kiy) kf;fs; Ntl;ilahbAk;>

Ky;iy epy (fhL) kf;fs; Mdpiu Nka;j;Jk;>

kUjepy (Mw;Wg;gLf;if) kf;fs; gapH nra;Jk;>

nea;jy; epy (flNyhuk;) kf;fs; kPd; gpbj;Jk;

tho;e;j rKjhaj;ijNa njhy;fhg;gpaj;jpy; fhzf; $bajhf ,Uf;fpwJ.

gpwnkhopAk;> gpwgz;ghLk; jkpo; nkhopNahLk; jkpo;g; gz;ghNlhLk; cwTnfhs;sj; njhlq;fpa fhyj;jpy;jhd; njhy;fhg;gpak; Njhd;wpapUf;fpwJ.

njhy;fhg;gpaNu jdJ Ehw;ghf;fspy; $wg;gLk; tpjpfSf;F jdf;F Kd;dUk; jdJ fhyj;jpYk; ,Ue;j GytHfsJ $w;Wf;fisr; vd;g> vd;kdhH GytH> nkhopg> ahg;ngd nkhopg ahg;gwp GytH vd;W rhd;W fhl;LthH.

njhy;fhg;gpak; vOj;J> nrhy;> nghUs; %d;Wf;Fk; ,yf;fzk; tFf;fpd;wJ. nghUsjpfhuk; cyfj; Njhw;wk;> capHfspd; tifg;ghL> ntt;NtW epyk;> me;j epyj;Jf;Fupa nja;tq;fs;> kf;fs;> kf;fspd; mftho;f;if> Gwtho;f;if newpfs;> MltHf;Fupa gz;Gfs;> ngz;fSf;Fupa  gz;Gfs;> kuq;fs;> tpyq;Ffs;> ,yf;fpa tiffs;> ,yf;fpaf; Nfhl;ghLfs;> ,yf;fpa kuGfs;> ,yf;fpaj; jpwdha;Tfs;> clypYk; cs;sj;jpYk; Njhd;Wk; nka;g;ghLfs; ,g;gb xl;L nkhj;j r%fj;ijg; gw;wpr; nrhy;fpwJ.

njhy;fhg;gpaj;jpy; rkak; my;yJ kjk; vd;w nrhy; ,y;iy. vy;yhk; ty;y> vy;yhk; njupe;j> vq;Fk; epiwe;j KOKjw; flTs; my;yJ guk;nghUs;  vd;w tiutpyf;fzj;Jf;F mika xU KOKjw; flTs; Fwpg;gplg;gltpy;iy. flTs; vd;w nrhy; kpf mUikahfg; gad;gLj;Jk; ,lj;jpy; mJ NjtHfisf; Fwpf;fNt ifahsg;gl;Ls;sJ.

vLj;Jf; fhl;lhfr; nrhy;y Ntz;Lnkd;why; nghUsjpfhuk>; Gwj;jpizapay; (27)-

"nfhbepiy> fe;jop> ts;sp vd;w
tLePq;F rpwg;gpd; Kjyd %d;Wk;
flTs; tho;j;njhL fz;zpa tUNk."

flTs; tho;j;njhL fz;zpa tUNk vd;gjd; nghUs; QhapW> jpq;fs;> jP %d;iwAk; tho;j;JtJk; mkuH tho;j;Jg; ghLtJ NghyNt nghUe;jp tUk; vd;gNj.

"fhkg; gFjp flTSk; tiuahH
VNdhH ghq;fpDk; vd;kdhH GytH."

(njhy;.nghUs;-Gwj;jpizapay; -R+j;jpuk; 23)

",d;gg; gFjpfisf; flTsplkpUe;Jk; ePf;fkhl;lhHfs;. kf;fsplkpUe;Jk;  ePf;f khl;lhHfs; vd;W GytH $WtH" vd;gNj ,jd; nghUs;. mJ flTs; khl;Lf; flTl; ngz;bH eag;gdTk;> mtH khl;L khdplg; ngz;bH eagdg;gTk;> flTs; khdplg; ngz;biu eag;gdTk;> gpwTk; Mk;" vd;gJ er;rpdhHf;fpdpaH ciu.

njhy;fhg;gpaH fhyj;jpy;  jkpofj;jpy; gy nja;t tzf;fq;fs; ,Ue;jd. jpUkhy;> KUfd;> ,e;jpud;> tUzd;> nfhw;wit> QhapW> jpq;fs;> jP Kjypaitfisj; jkpoHfs; nja;tq;fshf tzq;fp te;jdH.  ,ikatHfs; vd;w NjtHfisAk; nja;tq;fshff; nfhz;bUe;jdH.

njhy;fhg;gpaH fhyj;jpy; eLfy; tzf;fk; gutyhf ,Ue;jpUf;fpwJ. eLfy; tzf;fk;gw;wp njhy;fhg;gpaH tpupthd nra;jpfisj; je;jpUf;fpwhH.

irt rkaj;jtHfSf;F Vkhw;wk; jUk; nra;jp vd;dntd;why; njhy;fhg;gpaH fhyj;jpy; rpt topghL ,Uf;ftpy;iy. rptidf; Fwpf;Fk; nrhy; 1610 njhy;fhg;gpa Ehw;ghf;fspy; xd;wpYk; ,y;iy. ehy; Ntjq;fspy; Kjy; Ntjkhd ,Uf;F NtjKk; rptidf; Fwpf;ftpy;iy vd;gJk;  <q;F ftdpf;fj;jf;fJ.

NrNahd; vd;w nrhy; rptidf; Fwpg;gjhfr; rpyH nrhy;fpwhHfs;. NrNahd; vd;why; nrk;ik> rpte;j epwj;Njhd;> vdNt NrNahd; rptidf; Fwpf;fpwJ vd;gH. Ntjj;jpy; rptd; cUj;jpud; vdf; Fwpg;gplg;gLfpwhd;. Mdhy; mtdJ ngaiu cr;rupf;ff; $lhnjd;Wk;> mtid ahfrhiyf;F miof;ff; $lhnjd;Wk;> gyp nfhLf;Fk;NghJ CUf;F Gwj;Nj nfhLf;fg;gl Ntz;Lk; vdr; nrhy;yg;gl;lJ. ,Uf;F Ntjj;jpy; cUj;jpud; mr;rk; jUk; nja;tkhf rpj;jupf;fg;gl;bUf;fpwhd;.

FwpQ;rp epyj;Jj; nja;tj;ij NrNahd; vd;W njhy;fhg;gpaH Fwpf;fpwhH.  FwpQ;rp epyj; nja;tk; KUfd;> nrt;Nts;> NrNahd; vd;gNj njhd;W njhl;L tUk; tof;fkhFk;. FwpQ;rp epykf;fs; FwtH> Fwj;jpaH vdj; njhy;fhg;gpak; $Wtjhy; KUfd; jpUkzk; nra;j ts;sp FwpQ;rp epyj;Jf; Fwj;jpg; ngz;. KUfd; jkpo;f; flTs; vd;W Nghw;wg;gLtjw;F ,JTk; xU fhuzk;.

vdNt ,yf;fpa tof;fpYk;> cyfpay; tof;fpYk; FwpQ;rpj; nja;tk; KUfdhfNt vz;zg;gLfpwhd;. rptngUkhd; FwpQ;rpj; nja;tk; vd;gjw;F ,yf;fpa tof;Fk; ,y;iy. cyf tof;Fk; ,y;iy. ,Ue;jpUe;jhy; njhy;fhg;gpaH epr;rak; Rl;bapUg;ghH.

capHfs; flTshy; gilf;fg; gl;ljhf njhy;fhg;gpaj;jpy; ve;jf; Fwpg;Gk; ,y;iy. khwhf "epyKk;> ePUk;> jPAk;> fhw;Wk;> tpz;Zk; fye;jnjhU kaf;fkhd epiyapy; cyfk; cz;lhapw;W. ,itahTk; XH vy;iyf;F cl;gl;L ,aq;fpf; nfhz;bUe;j epiyapy; capHfs; Njhd;wpw;W" vdj; njhy;fhg;gpaH ,d;iwa mwptpay; fz;Lgpbg;ig md;Nw $WapUf;fpwhH.

"epyk; jP ePH tsp tpRk;NghL ma;e;Jk;
fye;j kaf;fk; cyfk; Mjypd;.               (njhy;. kugpay; 1589)

,Nj Nghy; ,d;iwa cU kyHr;rpia xl;bajhf capHfis XuwpT njhlf;fk; MwwpT tiu vLj;Jf;fhl;NlhL tpsf;fpf; $WfpwhH.

fp.K. Ie;jhk; Ehw;whz;by; jkpofj;jpy; rptd; vd;w nja;tNkh rpt kjNkh ,Uf;ftpy;iy vd;;gJ rhkp rpjk;gudhH Nghd;w jkpowpQHfsJ JzpghFk;.

njhy;fhg;gpaj;Jf;Fg; gpe;jpa filr;rq;f ,yf;fpf;fpaq;fspy; rptidg; gw;wpa Fwpg;Gf;fs; fhzg;gLfpd;wd."Kf;fl; nry;tH efH" vdg; GwehDhw;wpd; 6 Mk; ghly; Fwpf;fpwJ. Ehw;wpj; njhz;Zhw;nwl;lhtJ ghly; jpUkhiy "My; mkH flTs;" vdf; Fwpf;fpwJ.

njhy;fhg;gpaH fhyk;NghyNt rq;f fhyj;jpy; jkpo; kf;fspilNa Nt&d;wp ,Ue;j topghL eLfy; tzf;fkhFk;. Gwg;ghly; 265 CUf;Fg; Gwj;Nj ,Ue;j jplypy;  Ntq;if kyHfis nts;spa gde;Njhl;NlhL tputpj; njhLj;J khiyia mzptpj;J NfhtyH xU tPuDf;F fy; el;lijf; $WfpwJ.

,f; fw;fspy; tPudpd; ngaUk; ngUkpjKk; vOjg;gl;L mzpkapw; gPypAk; kyH khiyfSk; #l;lg;gl;ld vd mfg;ghly; xd;W (67) Fwpf;fpwJ.

eLfy; topghl;by; capHg;gyp nfhLf;fg;gl;lJ. giwfs; Kof;fg;gl;ld. Njhg;gpf;fs; gilf;fg;gl;lJ (mfk; 35). ,y;yq;fspy; mlg;gLk; fs;spidAila rpw;WhH kf;fs; Gwj;Nj ,Ue;j eLfw;fis ed;dPuhl;bdH. tpbaw; fhyj;J gypiag; gilj;J> nea; tpsf;Nfw;wpdH. Jhgk; fhl;bdH. Nkfk; Nghd;w Gif vOe;J njUtpy; kzk; gug;gpaJ (Gwk;229).

kwf;Fb gpwe;j kf;fs; tpOg;Gz;gl;L tPo;e;j tPudJ ngaUk; gPLk; vOjp el;l fy;iyf; flTshff; fUjp topgLjyd;wp ney; nrhupe;J topgLk; nja;tq;fs; NtW ,y;iy (Gwk; 335).

eLfy; tzf;fNk ehsiltpy; rpW nja;t tzf;fkhfTk;> ngUe;nja;t tzf;fkhfTk; tsHr;rp mile;jJ. nja;tk; te;J ntwpahba Ntyd; ehsiltpy; ifNty; jhq;fpa KUfdhf topglg;gl;lhd;. Ntiyj;jhq;fpatd; Ntyd; vdg;gl;lhd;.

nfhy;Yk; jd;ikAs;s Ntiyj; jhq;fpapUg;gtd; Ntyd;. mtd; nja;tj;jpd; Nfhgj;ij mwpe;J mijj; jpUg;jp nra;Ak; rpwg;Gs;std;. mtd; fhe;jspd; kyH khiyia mzpe;J cUf;nfhz;L MLthd;. ,e;j Ml;lk; fhe;js; vd miof;fg;gl;lJ.

njhy;fhg;gpaH Fwpg;gpLk; Itif epyj; nja;tq;fshd khNahd;> NrNahd;> Nte;jd;> tUzd;> nfhw;wit me;j epyq;fSf;Fupa tPuH tPuhq;fid Mf ,Ue;jpUf;fyhk;.

,d;W ,we;jtHfSf;F mtHfs; capNuhL ,Ue;jNghJ tpUk;gp cz;l czit Vohk; ehs; md;W fha;r;rpg; gilg;gJk;> CHf; Nfhapy;fspy; G+rhupfs; cUte;J Mb mUs;thf;Fr;  nrhy;tJk;  rq;f fhy eLfy; tzf;fk; kw;Wk; ntwpahl;bd; vr;rq;fNs.

flw;fiuapy; tho;e;j gujtH KO epyh ehspy; Rwh kPdpd; nfhk;gpid kzypy; el;L mjidj; nja;tkhf topgl;ldH. mjw;F kyH khiyfis mzpe;J gdq;fs;isAk; new;fs;isAk; cz;L kfpo;e;jdH (gl;bdg;. 86-96).

ijj;jpq;fs; Kjy; ehspy; kf;fs; ePuhb Nehd;G ,Ue;jdH vd;w nra;jp njhif Ehypy; xd;whd ew;wpizapy; (22) fhzg;gLfpwJ. fhHj;jpif ehspy; caHe;j kiyapy; tpsf;Ffis Vw;wp itg;gJ tof;fk; vd ghiyghba ngUq;fLq;Nfh vd;w Nrukd;dd; $wpAs;shd;.

fliy mLj;j jpUg;guq;Fd;wj;jpy; KUfd; Nfhapy; ,Ue;jJ. mq;F Xa;tpy;yhky; jpUtpohf;fs; ele;jd vd mfehDhW (59> 149) njuptpf;fpwJ.

xt;NthH CupYk; mk;gyk; (nghjp) ,Ue;jJ. mjpy; fe;J vd;Dk; topghl;Lf;Fupa kuj;Jhz; (287) ,Ue;jJ. mjid CH kf;fs; tpbfhiyapy; topgl;ldH.

njhy;fhg;gpaH fhyj;J 'NrNahd; Nka iktiu cyf' FwpQ;rp epyj; nja;tk; rq;f fhyj;jpy; KUff; flTshfj; Njhw;wk; ngw;whH. ,e;jg; goik fhuzkhfNt KUfd; jkpo;f; flTs; vd;W miof;fg;LfpwhH.

Fwj;jp Fyj;J ts;spia kze;j KUfd; Ntjf; flTshd ];fe;jrhkp- nja;tahid vd;w Mupaf; flTsNuhL ,izf;fg;gl;lNghJ mtUf;F ,uz;L kidtpaH tha;f;fg; ngw;whH. ehsiltpy; KUfd; rptdhuJ kfd; vdTk; jpUkhypd; kUfd; vdTk;> nfhw;witapd; kfd; vdTk; miof;fg;gl;lhd;.

rq;f ,yf;fpaq;fspy; 'nty;NghHr; Nrva;' 'nty;NghHf; nfhw;witr; rpWt' vd KUfd; NghHf; flTshfTk; nfhw;witapd; gps;isahfTk; rpj;jpupf;fg;gLfpwhd;.

NrNahd; KUfdhf Njhw;wk; ngw;wNghJ 'khNahd; Nka fhLiw cyf" Ky;iy epyj;  nja;tk; jpUkhy; Mf Njhw;wk; ngw;whH. gpd;dH jpUkhy; Mupaf; flTshd tpl;LZ  (tp\;Z) NthL ,izf;fg;gl;lhH.

murid jpUkhYf;F xg;gpl;L tho;j;Jk; tof;fk; njhy;fhg;gpaH fhyj;jpy; ,Ue;jpUf;fpwJ. khNahDf;Fupa Ky;iy epyj;jpd; ngUikiaAk; mopahj GfioAk; murNdhL ,izj;Jg; ghuhl;lg;gl;lJ. ,J G+it epiy vd miof;fg;gl;lJ.

rq;f fhyj;jpd; ,Wjpapy; rkzk;> gTj;jk; Mupaupd; ehy;Ntj rdhjd jHkk; jkpo;ehl;bd; efug; Gwq;fspy; ed;F Nt&d;wp ,Ue;jJ.

rkzg; gs;spfs;> ehy;tHzg; ghFghL> Nts;tp topghL> ghuj> ,uhkaz Guhzf; fijfs; rq;fj; jkpoupilNa ed;F gutpapUe;jd. ghHg;gdHfSf;F jdpf; FbapUg;Gf;fs; ,Ue;jd. %Nte;jHfs; Mupa Nts;tpfis nra;tpj;jhHfs;. ghHg;ghHf;F kd;dHfspd; muz;kid thapy; vd;Wk; mfyj; jpwe;jpUf;Fk; vd;W rpWghzhw;Wg;gil ghly; (203-205) $WfpwJ. ,J ghHg;gdHfsJ nry;thf;F caHe;jpUe;jijf; fhl;LfpwJ.

'Nja;jy; cz;ikAk; ngUfy; cz;ikAk;
kha;jy; cz;ikAk; gpwj;jy; cz;ikAk;'

vd;w GwehDhw;W (27) tupfs; vd;w nghUs; Kjy; thjk;> Gw cyF cz;ikad;W vd;w fUj;J Kjy; thjj;ij kWf;fpwJ. cyfKk; mjd; ,af;fKk; cz;ik vdr; nrhy;fpwH.

capH clk;G ,uz;Lk; jdpj;jdp vd;w fUj;J Kjy; Nfhl;ghl;il Vw;Wf; nfhs;shjtHfSk; rq;f fhyj;jpy; tho;e;jpUf;fpwhHfs;. 'clk;nghL ,d;DapH tpUk;Gk; fpoik' (clk;NghL tho ,d;DapH ngw;Ws;s cupik) vd;w GytH nghj;jpahupd; ghly; tupfs; (223) nghUs; Kjy;thj rhHGilaJ.

KuQ;rpA+H KbehfuhaH vd;w GytH ghba GwehDhw;Wg; ghly;; (Gwk; 2) G+jtpay; fUj;ij Kd;itf;fpwJ.

'kz; jpzpe;j epyDk;
epyd; Ve;jpa tpRk;Gk;
tpRk;G ijtU tspAk;
tspj; jiy,a jPAk;
jPKuzpa ePUk;> vd;hwhq;F
Ik;ngUk; G+jj;J ,aw;ifNghy.'

kWgpwg;G ,Uf;fyhk; my;yJ ,Uf;fhkYk; ,Uf;fyhk; vd;w ,uz;L fUj;Jk; rq;f fhyj;jpy; ,Ue;Js;sJ. Nghg;ngUQ; Nrhodpd; ghba Gwg;ghly; (214) kWgpwg;Gf; Nfhl;ghl;il kWg;gtHfSk; ,Ue;jpUf;fpwhHfs; vd;gij njspT gLj;JfpwJ.

flTs; cz;L vd;w fUj;JKjy; thjk; gpwe;jNghNj flTs; ,y;iy vd;w nghUs;Kjy; thjKk; gpwe;J tpl;lJ. tlnkhop Ehy;fspy; nghUs;Kjy; thjk; 'cyfha;jk;' vd miof;fg;gl;lJ.

rq;ffhyj; jkpoHfspilNa itjPf newp fhy;nfhs;sj; njhlq;fp tpl;lJ. kd;dHfs; kl;lj;jpYk; efuq;fspYk; rq;fg; ghly;fspy; ghHg;gdH me;jzH vd;W Fwpf;fg;gl;L mtHfsJ tho;f;ifKiw> jP tsHj;jy;> NtjNts;tpfs; nra;jy;> Ntk; XJjy;  gw;wpa Fwpg;Gfs; kpFe;J fhzg;gLfpwJ.

rq;ffhyg; ghu;g;gdu;fs;

fgpyH jd;id me;jzd; vd;W ngUikahfr; nrhy;yp nfhs;fpwhH.

gy;ahidr; nry;nfOFl;Ltd; ghiyf; fTjkdhiuf; nfhz;L gj;J ngUNts;tp nra;jhd;.

ghz;bad; jiyahdq;fhdj;Jr; nrUntd;w neLQ;nropad; itjPf xOf;fj;jpy; rpwe;jpUe;jhd;.

Nrhod; ,uhr#ak; Ntl;l ngUew;fps;sp vd;w ngaH ,td; gy Nts;tpfs; nra;jhd; vd;gijf; fhl;LfpwJ. (Gwk; 16)  

ghz;bad; gy;ahfrhiy KJFLkpg; ngUtOjp Nts;tpfs; gy nra;jhd;. mjidf; fz;L nel;bikahH vd;w GytH mtd; Nts;tpfs; gy nra;J Kbj;J mt; Nts;tpr; rhiyfspy; el;l A+gq;fSk; gy> tiraw;wtH njhifNah? A+gq;fspd; njhifNah> ,tw;Ws; kpf njhifahJ” vd;W Nfl;fpd;whH. ( Gwk; 6> 9> 12> 15> 64)

,it ahTk; itjPf newp jkpoupilNa Kjypy; fhy;nfhz;L gpd;dH ed;F Nt&d;wp tpl;ljw;F tYthd rhd;Wfs;. (jkpoH ehfupfKk; gz;ghLk; gf;fk; 266) fupfhyd;> gy;ahfrhiy KJFLkp ngUtOjp Nghd;w kd;dHfs; ngUk; nghUl;nrytpy; Nts;tpfs; nra;J ghHg;gdHfSf;F nghd;Dk; kzpAk; nfhLj;J Nkd;ikg; gLj;jpapUf;fpwhHfs;.

mtpnrhupe;J Mapuk; Ntl;lypd; xd;wd;
capH nrFj;J cz;zhik ed;W.               (mwj;Jg;ghy; mjp. 26- Fws; 259)

vd;w Fwspy; Nts;tp Ntl;liyj; jpUts;StH fz;bf;ftpy;iy. Nts;tp nra;tijtpl nfhy;yhik ed;W vd;Wjhd; $WfpwhH.

fpwpj;J gpwg;gjw;Fr; rpy E}W Mz;LfSf;F Kd;gpUe;Nj Mupag; ghu;g;gdu;fs; njhlu;r;rpahf rpw;wiyfisg; Nghyf; FLk;gk; FLk;gkhf tlf;fpypUe;J te;J jkpof ka;ag; gFjpfspy; FbNawj; njhlq;fpdhu;fs;. Gfhu;> kJiu> fhQ;rp> tQ;rp Kjypa efuq;fspYk; Mw;Nwhuq;fspYk; ney; tpisr;ry; kpFe;j tay; R+o;e;j Cu;fspYk;> ,tu;fs; jq;fSila jdpj;j milahsq;fNshLk;> gz;ghl;L mk;rq;fNshLk; tho;e;jhu;fs;. Vida jkpofkf;fsplkpUe;J jq;fSila eil> cil> ghtid> gof;f tof;fq;fs;> Rghtq;fs;> njhopy;> epj;jpa fu;kq;fs; Kjypatw;wpy; ghu;j;jTlNd milahsk; fz;Lnfhs;Sk; tpjj;jpy; NtWgLj;jpf; fhl;b tho;e;jhu;fs;. ,tw;why; jhd; jq;fSf;Fg; ngUk; kupahij ,Uf;fpwjhf ek;g itj;jhu;fs;.

jiyapy; FLkp itj;jhu;fs; (ma;q;FWE}W. 202). (Vida jkpou;fs; $e;jy; tsu;j;jhu;fs;)

fhtpf;fy;yhy; Njha;j;Jf; fhtp A+l;lg;gl;l Milia mzpe;J (Ky;iyg; ghl;L)> ifapy; Fil gpbj;J> gplupapy; cwpAk;> fufKk;> Kf;NfhYk; mire;jhlg; ghu;g;gdg; GNuhfpju;fs; gazk; nra;jhu;fs; (fypj; njhif 9).

cyfpYs;s kf;fistplj; jhq;fNs 'Gyd; mOf;F' ,y;yhjtu;fs; vd;w fl;Lf;fijiag; gug;gpdhu;fs; (GwehD}W 126). ,e;jr; Rj;jf; nfhs;ifiaj; jq;fsJ caupa nfhs;ifahf epiy ehl;bdhu;fs;.

gpwu; ePuhba Mw;wpy; Fspg;gijAk;> rlq;F nra;tijAk; jtpu;j;jhu;fs;. GJnts;sj;jpy; jkpo;kf;fs; GJg;Gdyhl;lk; vd;w tpohitf; nfhz;lhbaNghJ> me;j nts;sj;jpy; mtu;fs; fye;j eWkzg; nghUs;fshYk;> fs;shYk; fyq;fshf Mdjhy; mjpy; ePuhlTk; ,y;iy; thiaf;$lf; nfhg;gspf;ftpy;iy (gupghly; 6> gupghly; jpul;L 2).

kUj epyq;fspYk;> Ky;iy epyq;fspYk; jq;fSf;nfd;W jdpf; FbNaw;wq;fis cz;lhf;fpdhu;fs; (ew;wpiz 321).

tay; tskpf;f M%u; vd;w Cu; ghu;g;gdu;fspd; Cuhff; Fwpg;gplg;gl;lJ (rpWghzhw;Wg; gil). ,tu;fSila tPl;il 'tskid' (FwpQ;rpg; ghl;L) vd;W Gytu; Nghw;wpdu;.

fd;W fl;ba ge;jYk;> rhzj;jhy; ('igQ;NrW') nkOfpa Mrhukpf;f ey;y tPLk; ghu;g;gdupd; tPL.

,q;Nf> eha;> Nfhop Mfpa tw;iwf; fhz KbahJ. ,tw;Wf;Fg; gjpyhff; fpspfis tsu;j;jhu;fs;. ,it$l ,tu;fSila Ntjj;ij Xjpdthk; (ngUk;gh zhw;Wg; gil)....

(gpuhzpfs; tsu;g;gjpNy$l tU;zNgjk; ,Ue;jJ. eha;> Nfhop> gd;wp tsu;f;f 'fPo;rhjp'; gR> fpsp tsu;f;f Nky;[hjp).

Ntjj;ijg; ghu;g;gdu; XJtJ ehl;Lf;F ey;yJ vd;whapw;W. itjPf ka;aq;fspy; rpwg;gplk; ngw;wpUe;j kJiu efuj;jpy; jkpo; kf;fs;> tpbaw;fhiyapy; Nrty; $tpf; fz; tpopg;gjpy;iyahk;. ghu;g;gdu; Xjpa Ntjj;ijf; Nfl;Lj;jhd; fz; tpopg;ghu;fshk;! (gupghly; jpul;L).

'ehd;kiw Kjy;tu;'> 'mwpTil me;jzu;'> 'kiw fhg;ghsu;'> 'Nfs;tp me;jzu;'> 'Md;w Nfs;tp mlq;fpa nfhs;ifagsH'> 'gy; Nts;tpj;Jiw Nghfpa njhy;yhiz ey;yhrpupau;' (gl;bdg;ghiy> kJiuf; fhQ;rp) vd;nwy;yhk;> ghu;g;g du;fisg; Gytu;fs; mwpT Kjy;tu;fshfg; Nghw;wpdhu;fs;.

gpw jkpou;fs; ,tu;fisj; njhOjhu;fs; (ma;q;FWE}W 387)

,ue;J mwpTiu Nfl;lhu;fs; (ma;q;FWE}W 384).

'cau;e;Njhu;' vd;w xNu nrhy;yhy;> thdj;Jj; Njtu;fSk;> ,e;jg; ghu;g;gdu;fSk; Fwpf;fg;gl;lhu;fs; (FWe; njhif 233).

,uz;Nl gpwg;Gk;> ,U ngaUk;> <ukhd neQ;rKk; nfhz;l ghu;g;gdupd; itjPf jUkj;jpy; Guhzf; flTs;fs; jq;fpapUg;gjhff; $wpdhu;fs; (gupghly; 14)> (GwehD}W 367)

jkpo; muru;fs;> ghu;g;gdiuj; jtpu kw;w vtUf;Fk; jiygzpa khl;lhu;fs; vd;W ghuhl;lg; gLtJ xU kughf Mapw;W. ghu;g;gdiug; gzpe;J> mtu;fs; nrhw;gb elg;gJ murupd; cau;e;j gz;ghff; $wg;gl;lJ (gjpw;Wg;gj;J 63).

ghu;g;gdu;fs; J}u jpU\;b ('khrW fhl;rp') cs;stu;fshf kjpf;fg;gl;lhu;fs;. 'nel;bikahu;' vd;W ,J jkpopy; $wg;gl;lJ.

MW njhopy; GupAk; ghu;g; gdupd; topnkhope;J murhz;lhy;> me;j murid ,e;j cyfNk topnkhopAk; vd;whu;fs; (gjpw;Wg; gj;J 24).

ghu;g;gdu;fs; gRg;Nghd;w rhJf;fs; (GwehD}W 9) vd;W Nehf;fg;gl;lhu;fs;.

muru;fSf;F ,ilapy; Nghu; ele;jNghJ gRf;fs;> ngz;fNshL Nru;e;J ghu;g;g du;fSk; ghJfhg;ghd ,lq;fSf;F mDg;gg;gl;lhu;fshk; (GwehD}W 9).

gRtpd; fhk;ig mWj;jtu;> ngz;zpd; fUitf; fiyj;jtu;> ghu;g;gdu;fSf;Ff; nfLjy; nra;jtu; Mfpatu;fSf;Fg; gupfhuk; fpilahnjd;whd; xU Gytd; ('GwehD}W 34). gR> fU (rpR) Kjyhd nky;ypa> Nghw;wj;jf;f> ghJfhf;fj;jf;f> mutizg;Gf;Fupatw;NwhL ghu;g;gdUk; ,izf;fg; gl;ldu;.

ghu;g;gdg; Gytu;fSk;> ghu;g;gdf; fUj;jpaiy cau;e;jjhf Vw;Wf; nfhz;l jkpo;g; Gytu;fSk; ,g;gbg;gl;l ghu;g;gdj; Jjpfis muritfspy; Koq;fpdhu;fs;. tpy;> Nty;> ths;> ahidg;gil> Fjpiug; gil> Nfhl;il> nfhj;jsk; ahtw;iwAk; rhJ Ntlkpl;l rpWghd;ikg; ghu;g;gdu;fs; jq;fSila ghir Gupahj Ntj ke;jpuj;ijf; nfhz;Lk;> mf;fpdp fhupaj;ijf; nfhz;Lk;> Rj;j gupfhur; rlq;Ffisf; nfhz;Lk; mlq;fpg; Nghfr; nra;jhu;fs;. jq;fisj; jpUg;jp nra;jhy;jhd; murDk; jpUg;jpahf ,Uf;f KbAk; vd;gijj; jpUk;gj; jpUk;g Xjpdhu;fs;.

jkpopy; vOe;j Kjy; Ehy; jpUf;Fws;. mJ rkak; rhuhj Ehy;. jpUts;StH flTs; gw;wpAk; Md;kh gw;wpAk; vijAk; nrhy;ytpy;iy.

jpUts;StH fhyj;jpy; itjPf> rkz> gTj;j kjq;fSk;> ,iwtd;> Md;kh> kWgpwg;G Nghd;wtw;iw kWf;Fk; cyfha;jk; kw;Wk; rhq;fpak;> Nahdk;> ieahapfk;> itNrbfk;> kPkhk;ir Nghd;w 'rka' Nfhl;ghLfSk; jkpo; kf;fspilNa gutp ,Ue;jd.

jpUf;Fws; flTs; tho;j;Jg; ghapuj;jpy; Fwpg;gplg;gLk; Mjpgftd;> thywptd;> kyHkpir Vfpdhd;> ,iwtd;> jdf;Ftik ,y;yhd;> mwthop me;jzd;> vz;Fzj;jhd; Nghd;w nrhw;fs; vy;yhk; ty;y> vq;Fk; epiwe;j kdk; nkhop nka;fSf;F vl;lhj xU flTisf; Fwpg;gjhf ,y;iy. khwhf mit rkz rkaf; flTs; mUfidf; Fwpg;gpLtjhfNt nfhs;s Ntz;Lk;. jpUEhw;we;jhjpapy; ,r; nrhw;fs; mUfidf; Fwpf;ff; ifahsg;gl;Ls;sd. jpU.t.c..rpjk;guehjH jpUf;Fwspd; Kjy; ehd;F mjpfhuq;fSk; ,ilr; nrUf;fy; vdf; fUJfpwhH.

jpUf;Fws; Fwpg;gpLk; nja;tk;> NjtH kdpjupy; Nkk;gl;ltHfisNa Fwpf;fpd;wd. Md fhuzj;jpdhy;jhd; jpUts;StH 'nja;te;njhohs;' ' nja;tj;jhy; MfhnjdpDk;' 'NjtH midaH fatH' vd;w nrhy;yhl;rpiag; gad;gLj;JfpwhH.

rq;f fhyj;ij mLj;j ,uz;L Ehw;whz;L fsg;gpuH vd;w ,dj;jtH %Nte;jH  Ml;rpf;F KbT fl;b jkpo;ehl;ilf; ifg;gw;wp MSfpd;wdH. ,tHfs; Ml;rpf; fhyj;j;py; itjPf kjk; nry;thf;F ,of;f rkzKk; gTj;jKk; jiy Jhf;Ffpd;wd.

fp.gp. ,uz;lhk; Ehw;whz;by; ,aw;wg;gl;l ,ul;ilf; fhg;gpaq;fshd rpyg;gjpfhuKk; kzpNkfiyAk; itjPfk;> rkzk;> gTj;jk; jkpo;ehl;by; ed;whf Nt&d;wp tpl;lijAk;> Nfhapy;fs;> gs;spfs;> tpfhiufs; ,Ue;jijAk; mq;F topghL ,lk;ngw;wijAk; vLj;Jf; $wpfpd;wd.

,e;j rka khw;wq;fs; jkpoHfs; itjPf. gTj;j> rkz rkaq;fspy; Vf fhyj;jpy; ,Ue;J te;jijf; fhl;LfpwJ.

rkzKk; gTj;jKk; jkpo; ,yf;fpa tsHr;rpf;Fk; tsj;Jf;Fk; ngUk; gq;fhw;wpd. Ik;ngUk; fhg;gpaq;fSk; IQ;rpWk; fhg;gpaq;fSk; rkz my;yJ gTj;jHfshy; ,aw;wg;gl;lit MFk;.

fsg;gpuH Ml;rpiaj; njhlHe;J gy;ytH njhz;lkz;lyj;ij ifg;gw;wp  fhQ;rpiaj; jiyefuhff; nfhz;L njhz;lMl;rp nra;jhHfs;. gy;ytH Ml;rp fp.gp. 300-900 Mz;Lfs; epiyj;jpUe;jJ. gy;yt kd;dHfspy; ngUk; Gfo;ngw;w Kjyhk; kNfe;jputHkd; ( fp.gp. 610-630)  mg;guJ Kaw;rpahy; rkzj;jpy; ,Ue;J irt rkaj;Jf;F khwpdhd;. mt;thNw ghz;b ehl;il Mz;l ghz;bad; ney;Ntyp ntd;w epd;wrPH neLkhwDk;  Qhdrk;ge;juhy; gTj;j rkaj;jpy; ,Ue;J irt rkaj;Jf;F khw;wg;gl;lhd;.

gy;ytH Ml;rpf; fhyj;jpy;jhd; irtrkak; mg;gH> MSilg; gps;isahH> Re;juH> khzpf;thrfH jiyikapy; gf;jp ,af;fkhf vOr;rp ngw;wJ. ,JNt irt rkaj;jpd; nghw;fhyk; vd;W nrhy;yyhk;. gf;jp ,af;fk; ntWk; czHT G+Htkhd Guhzf; fijfisg; gad;gLj;jp rkz gTj;j kjq;fspd; mwpTG+Htkhd jUf;f jj;Jtq;fisAk; caHe;j xOf;fq;fisAk; Njhw;fbj;jJ. 

'ehkhHf;Fk; Fbay;Nyhk;
  ekid mQ;Nrhk;
Vkhg;Nghk; gpzpawpNahk;
 gzpNth ky;Nyhk;.'

'mQ;RtJkpy;iy  mQ;rtUtJ kpy;iy'

vd;w mg;gupd; tPu Kof;fq;fs; kf;fSf;F rq;ffhy Gw tho;f;ifia epidT+l;l cjtpd NghYk;.

rka FutH ehy;tUk;  Ntj newp tFj;j tHz Ngjj;ij epuhfupf;ftpy;iy. 'gpwg;nghf;Fk; vy;yh capHf;Fk;' vd;w mbg;gilapy; r%fj;ij fl;b vOg;gj; Jzpatpy;iy. ,Ue;Jk;  rhjpgw;wpa mZFKiwapy; itzt Mo;thHfs; Nghy; ,y;yhtpl;lhYk; xU nefpo;r;rpj; jd;ikia rka FutHfs; gpd;gw;wpdhHfs;.

gd;dpU Mo;thHfspy; jPz;lg;glhj ghzH Fyj;jtuhd jpUg;ghzho;thH xUtH vd;gJ Fwpg;gplj;jf;fJ. 'MTupj;Jj; jpd;WiyAk; GiyaNuDk; fq;ifthH rilrq;fuHf;F md;guhfpy; mtH fz;BH ehk; tzq;Fk; nja;tkhNk" vd;gjpy; cs;s 'ck;' Ntw;Wik cUG rhjpia kWf;ftpy;iy. rhjpfis Vw;Wf; nfhz;L mtw;Wf;fpilNa rkurk; fhz Kaw;rpg;gjhfNt cs;sJ. mjpy;$l mtHfs; ntw;wpngwtpy;iy vd;gNj cz;ikahFk;.

mNj fhyfl;lj;jpy; Mo;thHfs; jpUkhy; topghl;il gf;jp kag;gLj;jp itzt kWkyHr;rpf;F tpj;jpl;lhHfs;.

,iwtid gf;jpNahL cskhu Nerpj;jhy; tPLNgW milayhk; vd irtk;-itztk;  ,uz;Lk; giw rhw;wpd.

jkpoHfsJ rq;f fhy mfj;Jiw ,yf;fzj;jpy; tUk; jiytd; jiytp cyfpay; cwTKiw Njthu jpUthrf jpt;tpagpuge;jq;fspy; fhjw;Rit jJk;Gk; nja;tPf ehafd; ehafp cwthf cUkhw;wk; nra;ag;gl;lJ. md;gpide;jpizfshfpa GzHjy;> gpupjy;> ,uq;fy;> ,Uj;jy;> Cly; ,iwtd; NkNyw;wpg; ghlg;gl;lJ. khzpf;fthrfupd; jpUntk;ghit> Mz;lhspd; jpUg;ghit ,jw;F ey;y rhd;whFk;.

,y;ywj;jpy; ,Ue;J nfhz;Nl ,iwtd; jpUg;ghjk; milayhk; vdr; nrhy;yg;gl;lJ. 'mHr;rid ghl;NlahFk; Mjyhy; kz;Nky; vk;ik nrhw;wkpopy; ghLf' vd;w Kof;fk; Kd;itf;fg;gl;lJ.

Nts;tpf;Fg; gjpy; ePUk; G+TNk topghl;Lf;F cfe;j nghUl;fshff; nfhs;sg;gl;ld.

jkpo;nkhopf;F Vw;wk; nfhLf;FkhW 'ey;ypirahy; ehSk; jkpo;gug;Gk; Qhdrk;ge;jd;' vd;W rk;ge;jH jd;idj; jhNd $wpf; nfhz;lhH. jkpo; ,irAk; gujf; fiyAk; ,iwtd; Gfo;ghlg; gad;gLj;jg;gl;ld.

,jdhy; fhjy; ntWg;igAk; NghH ntWg;igAk; fiy ntWg;igAk;  %yhkhff; nfhz;l 'Gw' gTj;j rkaz kjq;fis irtKk; itztKk; Gwq;fz;ld. rkzk; gTj;jk; ,uz;Lk; jq;fs; nry;thf;if ,oe;jd.

mNj rkak; rkzk; gTj;jk; ,uz;bd; nry;thf;fpdhy; itjPf kjj;jpy; fhzg;gl;l capHg;gyp epWj;jg;gl;lJ> Nts;tp mUfp G+irf;F Kd;Dupik toq;fg;gl;lJ.

gTj;jk; rkzk; ,uz;bd; tPo;r;rpf;F ngUk; gq;F tfpj;jtH jpUQhdrk;ge;jH. ,jdhy; mtH 'gurka Nfhsup' vdg; Nghw;wg;gl;lhH.

jpUQhdrk;ge;jH gTj;j Njuuhd Gj;je;jpNahL elj;jpa rka thjj;jpy; 'gTj;jd; jiy cUz;L tPo;f' vd ntFz;Liuf;f mt;thNw ,btpOe;J jiy mWgl;L tpOe;jJ  vd ngupaGuhzk; $WfpwJ.

,J cz;ikahdhy; ,e;jr; nra;jp gf;jp ,af;f fhyj;jpy; irt rkak; gTj;jj;NjhL jj;Jt mbg;gilapy; jUf;f thjk; Gupa Kbahj epiyapy; ,Ue;jijf; fhl;LfpwJ.

khzpf;fthrfH fhyj;jpYk; (fp.gp. 9Mk; Ehw;whz;L) gTj;jj;Jf;F vjpuhd thjj;jpy; ,yq;ifapy; ,Ue;J nrd;w gTj;j Njuiu jj;Jt mbg;gilapy; nty;y Kbahj epiyapy; ehkfspd; Jizahy; gTj;jHfis Cikahf;fpdhH vd jpUtpisahly; Guhzk; Gfy;fpwJ.

,tw;wpd; gpd;dNu irt rkaj;Jf;F jj;Jt mbg;gilapy; rpj;jhe;jk; xd;iw Njhw;Wtpf;f Ntz;ba Njit Vw;gl;lJ NghYk;.

fp.gp. 12 Mk; Ehw;whz;by; Njhd;wpa ngUq;fhg;gpakhd ngupaGuhzNk> 13Mk; Ehw;whz;by; irt rpj;jhe;jk; xU jj;Jt newpahf tsHtjw;F mbg;gilahf mike;jJ. Nrf;fpohH Re;juH (8Mk; Ehw;whz;L) vOjpa jpUj;njhz;lj; njhifiaAk; ek;gpahz;lhH   ek;gp (10Mk; Ehw;whz;L) vOjpa jpUj;njhz;lH jpUte;jhjp ,uz;ilAk; gpd;gw;wpNa ngupaGuhzk; ,aw;wg;gl;lJ.

gf;jpnewp fhyj;jpy; Njhd;wpa ,yf;fpaj;ij ek;gpahz;lhH ek;gp gd;dpUjpUKiw tbtpy; tFj;Jk; njhFj;Jk; nfhLj;jhH. ,jpy; irt Njhj;jpuq;fSk; (,iwtd; Gfo; ghLjy;)   rhj;jpuq;fSk; (jj;Jt tpsf;fTiu) NrHf;fg;gl;ld.

rka FutHfshd rk;ge;jH> mg;gH> Re;juH ghba Njthu jpUthrfq;fs; Kjy; vl;Lj; jpUKiwahfj; njhFf;fg;gl;ld. xd;gjhk; jpUKiw xU njhif Ehy;. jpU%yH vOjpa jpUke;jpuk; 10 Mk; jpUKiw. Ntjk; Mfkk; ,uz;LNk ,iwtd; mUshy; ntspg;gl;lit vd Kjd; Kjypy; $wpatH jpU%yNu. rpj;jhe;jk; vd;w nrhy;iy Kjd;Kjypy; gad;gLj;jpatUk; mtNu. gjpndhuhk; jpUKiwAk; xU njhif Ehy;. gjpndhU mbfshHfs; ghba 39 Ehy; ,jpy; mlq;Ffpd;wd. gd;dpuz;lhk; jpUKiw Nrf;fpshupd; ngupa Guhzk;.

rq;fuupd; mj;itjk; (gukhj;khTk; Mj;khTk; ,uz;ly;y)

,uhkDrupd; (12Mk; Ehw;whz;L) tprpl;lhJitjk;>

kj;Jtupd; Jitjk; (13Mk; Ehw;whz;L) xd;Wf;F xd;W Kuzhdit.

cyfKk; capHfSk; nghUs;fSk; mepj;jpak; my;yJ khia vd;fpd;w rq;fuupd; Ntjhe;ij tprpl;lhJitjk; kWf;fpwJ.

kj;Jtupd; Jitjk; (,Uik) Md;khTk; ,iwtDk; NtW NtW vd;fpwJ.

nka;fz;lhupd; 'Rj;j mj;itjk;' capUf;Fk; flTSf;Fk; cs;s cwit tpsf;Fk; rq;fuupd; mj;itjj;jpw;F Gjpa nghUs; nfhLf;fpwJ.

jpUKiwf;F xg;ghf 13Mk; Ehw;whz;by; nka;fz;lhH vOjpa rpj;jhe;j Ehyhd rptQhd NghjKk; mjw;F mtuJ jiy khzhf;fH  mUze;jp rpthr;rhupahH vOjpa  rptQhdrpj;jpahH vd;w ciuEhYk; Fwpg;gplj;jf;fd. nka;fz;l rhj;jpuk; vd toq;Fk; rpj;jhe;j rhjpuk; gjpdhd;F MFk;.

mUze;jp rpthr;rhupahH vOjpa rptQhdrpj;jpahH vd;w Ehypy; gugf;fk; vd;w gFjpapy; 14 kjq;fs; fz;bf;fg;gLfpd;wd.

mjpy; gTj;jk; Kjy; ,lk; tfpf;fpwJ. rq;fuH (fp.gp. 7k; Ehw;whz;L) vt;thW gTj;jj;ijg; Gwq;fhz gTj;j jj;Jtq;fisg; gad;gLj;jpathW mUze;jpAk; gTj;j msitfis (jHf;fq;fis) gad;gLj;jp ,Uf;fpwhH.

irt rpj;jhe;jk; ehy;Ntjq;fisg; nghJthfTk; Mfkq;fis rpwg;ghfTk; nfhs;fpwJ. Ntjq;fs; Mfkq;fs; ,uz;Lk; rptngUkhdhy; mUsg;gngw;wJ vd;gJ irt rpe;jhj;jpd; mbg;gilf; nfhs;if. khzpf;fthrfH Mfkq;fNs ,iwtd; vd;fpwhH. Mfkq;fs; rupif> fpupif> Qhdk;> Nahfk; vd;Dk; ehd;F nghUl;fs;gw;wpr; nrhy;fpwJ.

irt rpj;jhe;jk; -

    (1) gjp (flTs;)

    (2) gR (capHfs;)

    (3) ghrk; (Nghfg; nghUl;fs;)

    (4) Mztk; (mwpahik)

    (5) khia (mz;lg;gilg;gpw;fhd xU %yk; nghUs;. xd;iw Ntwhff; fhl;Lk; xU kaf;fk; vd;W Ntjhe;jk; $Wtij irt rpj;jhe;jk; xg;Gf; nfhs;tjpy;iy)

    (6) fd;kk; (Kd;tpidg;gad;) Mfpa MWk; MjpAk; me;jKk; ,y;yh epj;jpag; nghUl;fs; vdr; nrhy;fpwJ.

,JNt irt rpj;jhe;jj;jpd; mbg;gilf; nfhs;if.

,iwtidg; gjp vd;Wk;> mehjpahdtd; vd;Wk; mtDf;F xU rf;jp Nghd;wJ 'khia' vd;Wk; (,J NtW rq;fuH nrhy;Yk; khia NtW) cyfq;fs;> nghUl;fs;> capHfs; Njhd;Wtjw;F fhuzkhdJ khia vd;Wk;> mk; khiaAk; Mjpaw;wJ vd;Wk; capHfSk; epiyahdit vd;W NkYk; mJ $WfpwJ. capUf;Fk; ,iwtDf;Fk; cs;s njhlHG xd;wha;> Ntwha;> cldha; cs;sJ. capH ,iwtdy;y vd;gJ rpj;jhe;jf; nfhs;if. ,iwtNd capH vd;gJ Ntjhe;jf; nfhs;if.

gjpdhwhk; Ehw;whz;L njhlf;fk; tzpfj;Jf;fhf ehL gpbf;f te;j NghHj;Jf;NfaH> xy;yhe;jH. Mq;fpNyaH tUifia mLj;J fpwpj;jtk; jkpo;ehl;bYk; <oj;jpYk; gutpd. rkak; gug;g jkpo; gbj;j nwhNgHl; b. nehgpyp> rPfd; ghy;F> tPukhKdptH> lhf;lH fy;Lnty; Nghd;NwhH jkpo; ,yf;fpaj;Jf;F Gjpa tdg;Gk; tbtKk; nfhLj;jhHfs;.

,e;jpahtpy; nkhfhyaH Ml;rp fhuzkhf ,];yhk; jkpo;ehl;by; gutpaJ. gpwg;ghy; jkpouhf ,Ue;jhYk; rkaj;jhy; jq;fis ,];yhkpaH vd ,tHfs; jq;fis mwpKfk; nra;J nfhs;fpwhHfs;. ,];yhkpaupd; Njrpa milahsk; nkhop my;y kjk; vd;gJ Fwpg;gplj;jf;fJ.

,JfhWk; $wpatw;why; njhy;fhg;gpa jkpoHfspilNa nja;t tzf;fk; ,Ue;jJ. Mdhy; flTs; ek;gpf;ifNah rkaNkh ,Uf;ftpy;iy. rq;f fhyj;jpy; Ntj newpAk; flTs; ek;gpf;ifAk; fhy;nfhs;s Muk;gpj;jd. ,Ue;Jk; mikg;G Kiwahf epWtg;gl;l (established) rkak; ,Uf;ftpy;iy.

rq;fk; kUtpa fhg;gpa fhyj;jpy; jkpoHfs; itjPf> rkz> gTj;j kjj;ij jOtp ,Ue;jhHfs;.

gf;jp,af;f fhyj;jpy; Mupaupd; Ntjnewp rq;f fhy jiytd; jiytp cwitAk; eLfy; tzf;fj;ijAk; cs;thq;fpf; nfhz;L rkz gTj;j kjr; nry;thf;if rha;j;jd.

gpw;fhy gy;ytH Nru Nrho ghz;baH Ml;rpapy; irtKk; itztKk; tsHr;rpaile;jd. mNj rkak; rhjpg;ghFghLk; $Hik mile;jd.

,d;W ,e;J kjj;jpd; cl;gpupthd irt rkaNk ngUk;ghd;ik jkpoHfspd; rkakhf ,Uf;fpwJ. ,Ue;Jk; gf;jpnewp fhyj;jpy; fhzg;gl;l topghl;L Kiw> rkj;Jtk;> jkpo;nkhopapy; mHr;ridAk; ,d;W fhzg;gltpy;iy. ,jdhy; jkpo;kf;fSf;Fk; irt rkaj;Jf;Fk; ,ilapy; xU ,ilntsp  ,Ue;J tUfpwJ. ,jdhy; kjkhw;wk; rpwpa mstpy; eilngWfpwJ. fhyg; Nghf;fpy; Jhthdk; ngUk; Jspfshf khwf; $Lk;. Irt kjk; jkpo;nkhop tsHr;rpf;F jkpopd gz;ghl;L vOr;r;pf;F jilahf ,Uf;fpwJ.

,f;fl;Liuf;Fg; gad;gLj;jg;gl;l Jiz Ehy;fs;

    (1) jkpoH kjk; - nkhopQhapW Qh. NjtNeag; ghthzH

    (2) rpt topghL - jp. goepag;gdhH

    (3) jkpoH rka tuyhW - lhf;lH M. NtYg;gps;is

    (4) irtrkaj; Njhw;wKk; tsHr;rpAk; - lhf;lH b.gp. rpj;jypq;fk;

    (5) mfehDhW

    (6) GwehDhW

    (7) rpyg;gjpfhuk;

    (8) ts;Stupd; nka;apay; - F.F. Mde;jd;

    (9) jkpo;nkhop ,yf;fpa tuyhW - lhf;lH kh. ,uhrkhzpf;fdhH

    (10) jkpof tuyhWk; gz;ghLk; - lhf;lH V. Rthkpehjd;

    (11) jkpo; ,yf;fpa tuyhW -jkpoz;zy;

    (12) jkpo; ,yf;fpa tuyhW - vk;.MH. milf;fyrhkp

    (13) jkpoH ehupfKk; gz;ghLk; - lhf;lH m. jl;rzh%Hj;jp

    (14) rpyg;gjpfhuj; jkpofk; - jkpowpQH rhkp rpjk;gudhH

    (15) njhy;fhg;gpaj; jkpoH - jkpowpQH rhkp rpjk;gudhH 

    (16) rkzKk; jkpOk;;- kapiy rPdp Ntq;flrhkp

    (17) gz;ilj; jkpoH tho;Tk; topghLk;- fyhepjp ifyhrgjp

    (18) nja;tj; jkpo; - Nfh. G+tuhfd;

The Development of Tamilian Religious Thought

The beginnings of Tamilian civilization may be traced far back to the ancient days when the waters of the Pahruli river brought fertility to the regions that extended southwards beyond Kumari (the present Cape Camorin).

The Pandya king Ma Kirti at whose court the Tholkappiyam was published flourished before the time of the great deluge which submerged several ranges of hills, the river Pahruli and the forty-nine countries adjoining it. The waters of the Indian Ocean roll over the spot where the proud city of Kapadapuram stood. This city of great wealth, rich in gold, celestial and adorned with pearls and gems, was the second capital city of the Pandyan kingdom; the original swallowed up by the sea at the end of the first Ozzhi.

The commentator Nachhinarkiniyar ascribes to king Ma Kiriti a long reign of twenty four thousand years and proceeds to say that the scholars at this old king's court were, therefore, men of matchless wisdom. If years mean of very ripe wisdom. Never-the-less we, who belong to a short-lived race of mortals, whose average span of life does not exceed the proverbial three score years and ten, refuse to see eye to eye with Nacchinarkiniyar when he makes this pre-diluvian monarch go through the tradition may be unacceptable for purposes of historical investigation it may not be uninteresting to seek for and discover its origin.

The existence of parallel traditions in Sumerian history suggests the possibility of a common source. The king list of Larsa give the names of eight kings before the deluge who reigned for periods ranging between 18,600 and 43,200 years. The civilisation of the Mesopotamian valley has a special interest to students of Tamil culture, for the ancient Sumerians are said to bear most resemblance to the Dravidian ethnic type of India.

The discovery of monuments belonging to the First Dynasty of Ur. (3100-2930 BC), the third after the Flood has proved to a certain extent that the records left by the scribes of ancient Sumer are not altogether legendary. The archaeological finds at Harappa and Mohenje-Daro may throw fuller light on the racial and cultural connections of the Sumerians and the ancient Dravidians, and the antiquity nexions of the Sumerians and the ancient Dravidians, and the antiquity of the Sumero-Dravidian civilization.

The account given by Berosus in the third of fourth century before Christ appears to suggest that the early settlers of Sumer arrived by sea, bringing with them a fully developed civilization. This civilization may possibly have arisen in the submerged Tamil-lands that extended to the south of Kumari. Coming back to the court of king Ma Kirti, we are Tholkappiyar seated in the midst of an assembly of learned pundits, expounding his immortal treatise. Opposite to him sits Athankottasan, a relentless critic, who at the instigation of the sage Agattiyar (Sanskrit-Agastya) points out many flaws in the book. Tholkappiyar successfully meets the points raised by Athankottasan and the book receives the approbation of the wise men of Ma Kirti's court. From thence forward the Tholkappiyam becomes the most authoritative treatise on Tamil language and Tamil culture. From internal evidence one is lead to believe that the book was written at a time when the Aryan culture was just beginning to influence the social and religious life of the ancient Tamilians. Nacchinarkiniyar says that the Thokappiyam existed before the time of Byasa the compiler of the Vedas and the author of the Mahabharata.

The high standard of excellence reached by the book shows that the Tamils at this time were a highly civilized people. The sage Agattiyar came into a land which was civilized and wealthy.There are a good many legends centering round the name of this sage. He is said to have started from the Meru; passing through Dwarapathi (Dwarasamudram), he proceeded southwards with a band of followers until he reached Tamilakam. After his arrival, the Pothiya hill, where he fixes up his abode becomes as famous as the Himalayas.

The Kaviri river (Cauvery) which is said to have originated from his water-pot ecomes the sacred Ganges of the South; Kanta-man the Chola king who sought his protection is saved from the murderous battle axe of Parasurama, the protagonist of priestly power; the mighty Ravana crosses the sage's path and becomes subdued (literally bound) not by force of arms, but by the subtler persuasive power of music. The sage is said to have spend years in the island of Ceylon practicing severe austerities. Later he becomes deified and we see temples erected to him in far-off Java. This half-mythical figure stands in the hoary which like the confluence of the Ganges and the Jamuna was to progress ever afterwards as an undivided singled life-giving current.

The earliest existing literary records of Tamilakam are to be found among the anthologies known as the Sangam classics. Rescued from palm-leaf manuscripts and brought to light during the last three or four decades these anthologies open up an entirely new world, entering into which one meets with a god-like race of

men and women, strong in physique, possessed of a keen intellect, proud, valiant, active and energetic. They appear to have given little or no thought to metaphysical speculations. Life in those remote times was strenuous and the hero who won renown by steady perseverance and indomitable courage either in the battle-field or in the more peaceful avocations of life was held up as the ideal to be followed. He whose valour was sung by bards here on earth was sure of mounting the celestial car which carried the soul in its ascent to the abode of the Immortals. This earliest epoch in the civilization of the Tamils is the age in which Heroism was exalted to the position of a religion. The acquisition of fame was held up as the motive for virtuous action and the performance of strenuous

deeds of valour.

The War-God Muruga, ruddy-complexioned, resembling the sun at dawn, was worshipped from the earliest times as the ideal of unfailing Achievement. His mother the great Goddess, whom the Tamilian soldiers invoked in the field of battle was known as Kotravai, the Victorious One. Even in those early days there were philosophers, arivar, who by years of mental discipline had attained the intuitive insight in to the past, the present and the future; and there were also anchorities, Thapathar who performed severe austerities; the Ariver and the Thapathar having the attainment of Truth as the sole aim of life worshipped Shiva, the unborn, the embodiment of Truth. To those who shrank from the path of Truth, the God of Truth appeared as the God of Wrath and Destruction. Mayon, the blue-complexioned was the embodiment of Fame. His brother, Valiyon, whose complexion was as white as a conch-shell was the personification of undisputed Strength. Indra and Varuna ranked only as demi-gods.

It is said that the Chola King Thodi-thol-chempian went as an ally of the king of the celestials and broke down the three hanging fortresses of the Asuras. In sealing a bond of friendship, the king of the celestials agreed to visit the Chola capital once a year and participate in the great festival which was held in his honour for eight and twenty days. This was the origin of the Indravizha. Mention is made of a Pandya king Vadimpalambaninra-pandyan who instituted a festival in honour of the Sea-god. One of his descendants not only discarded this festival but also hurled a lance of defiance at the Sea-god, whereupon the enraged sea swept away the Pahruli river, several ranges of hills and a goodly portion of the Pandya dominions. The undaunted Pandya marched northwards and conquered new lands to make up for the loss he had sustained. Old kind Ma Kirti defied the very gods and looked upon them as mere quarrelsome children. Once when he heard that hostilities were about to break out between the Devas and the Asuras he interposed and asked them to lay down their arms

and added the threat that if either party where to resort to acts of violence, his strong right arm would smite down the miscreants. The threat went home and both parties slunk away in terror from the presence of the mighty monarch. These legends help us to gain some insight into the ideals and aspirations that stirred the heart of the old Tamil warrior.  Paripadal, one of the Sangam anthologies, makes mention of the Vedic pantheon of gods, such as the twelve Adityas, the eight Vasus the eleven Rudras and the twin Asvini-devas; but the worship of these deities had not yet taken root among the mass of the people. Some of the kings were persuaded to perform Vedic sacrifices which they did more for the purpose of winning earthly renown than for the achieving of heavenly rewards. One of the Pandya kings Muthu-kudumi Peru-Vazhuthi who lived before the time of the submergence of the Pahruli river had the distinguishing epithet of Pal-yaga-salai, which means the possessor of many sacrificial halls and another Chola king is known as Peru-nar-killi who performed the Rajasuya sacrifice. Early Aryan thought appears to have been introduced into Tamilakam with Vedic ritualism.

The Tholkappiyam and the Paripadal make incidental mention of the early speculations concerning the Universe, man's place in it and the ultimate destiny of humanity. The Sankhya system of philosophy pear to have been centred round the study of philosophy until the coming of the Jains and the Buddhists. Within a century or two after the time of their illustrious founders these great religions appear to have been introduced into Tamilakam. Somewhere about this time, there appeared on the firmament of Tamilakam a star of the first magnitude which continues to shed its lustre even to this day. Thiruvalluvar,whose name is known to all parts of the civilized world, and whose teachings have lent a unique grandeur to the language in which they were uttered lived in an age of great intellectual activity. The ferment introduced by the great heresies of Jainism and Buddhism made the exponents of Vaidika Dharma to revalue the traditional teachings and to formulate a course of conduct which while remaining within the established tenets of the ancient Dharma would also appeal to those who would not accept the authority of the Vedas. The Universal gospel of Thiruvalluvar met this demand and has ever since been acclaimed as the Uttara Veda. When Buddhism and Jainism were first introduced they were considered merely as systems of thought and were received with open arms.

The disciplined life of the hardy Tamil warrior.

The old soldier who might have grown world-weary of the endless number of battles he was called upon to fight may have found a calm refuge in the seclusion of monasteries. Those who suffered great bereavements such as the fathers of Kovalan and Kannaki entered the monasteries to pass the last days of their lives. Princes of the royal blood such as Ilankovadikal embraced a life of poverty to follow the example of the noble ascetic, the scion of the Sakya clan. Along with Buddhism and Jainism the Nyaya and Vaiseshika philosophies were introduced into Tamilakam. In those remote times the Mimamsa system does not appear to have been divided into the Purva and the Uttara Mimamsas Lokayata (materialism), Buddhism, the Sankhya, the Nyaya,the Vaiseshika and the Mimamsa systems are known as the six systems of philosophy in the time of the Manimekhalai. A great impetus was given to the cultivation of learning and some of the Tamilian Buddhist scholars went to China,Tibet and the island of Java carrying with them the torch of knowledge. Mention is made in the Manimekhalai of a famous Buddhist teacher, Ara-vana-adikal. The name may be translated into Sanskrit as Dharma-Swarupa. He is the hero of the epic as much as his disciple the Bhikshuni Manimekhalai is the heroine. The fact that he was extremely aged is mentioned in several placed in the poem. The force of his personality appears to have gained many adherents to the path of Buddhism. Later on Buddhism and Jainism gained ground to such as extent that they gave up the spirit of toleration which characterized them at the beginning and became aggressive religions. They aimed at the conversion of the whole of Tamilakam and attempted to do this by winning over the exclusive patronage of princes and scholars. After the destruction of Pukar (Kavirippumpattinam), which event took place somewhere about the end of the second century, the Chola capital is transferred to Uraiyur.

Madura suffers from the severe drought and famine for twelve years.

The poets of the Sangam disperse and the glories of the good old days become a mere memory of the past. Several Northern dynasties that cast covetous eyes upon the wealth of Tamilakam as early as the time of the Pandya king mentioned in the Chilappadikaram. This invasion was successfully resisted and the king is, therefore, known to history as Arya-padai-kadantha Neduncheliyan. Subsequently the Aryan hordes make a clean sweep of the country and in the next century we see Pallava kings well-established in Kanchi. The Chola and the Pandya dynasties suffer a temporary eclipse and the whole country passes through a period of transition, at the end of which, we find that the North had achieved a cultural conquest even more pronounced than the political conquest. The very names of the Pandya and Chola kings become Sanskritized.

It was during this time, perhaps by the end of the third century or a little earlier,that the Yoga system of philosophy began to appear in Tamilakam. Tradition says that Patanjali lived a Chidambaram and wrote his commentary on Panini's grammar, a treatise on medicine, his Tantric rules for the worship of Nataraja. The sage is represented as a Naga and is considered as an incarnation of Sesha Naga. This seems to suggest that the theory and practice of Yoga were developed among the ancient Nagas. Patanjali's name is coupled with that of Vyagrapada another sage who is said to have arrived at Chidambaram earlier. This sage is represented with eyes in his toes. Is he to be identified, with Akshapada, the father of Nyaya Sastra? These two sages are said to be the first to witness the cosmic dance of Nataraja. The account may be symbolic of the fact that the supreme truth of the Shaiva religion can only be discerned by the combined eyes of Yoga and Nyaya. By saying so we do not in the least deny, the historicity of the two sages mentioned above. The agamic cult of worship which probably existed as a cult from early times was elaborated during this period. It was certainly enriched by the influx of Tantric thought from the North. The worship of Ganesha, the elephant-headed God, whose form is that of the Pranava mantra is recognised in the Yoga system.

Yoga and Tantra engaged the attention of Siddhars and recluses. Before they could filter down to the mass of the people it was necessary that the doctrines taught by them should be actualized in the lives of one or more saintly personages. Karaikkal Ammaiyar or Karaikal Pei (the demoness of Karaikkal) as she called her self, was blessed with a vision of the mystic dance at Tiruvalangadu, and having the gift of song she has sung in immortal verse the glory of the vision that was vouchsafed unto her, the first Alwars of Vaishnavism were probably contemporaries of Karaikal Ammaiyar. Cholan Chenganan, the builder of many temples also probably lived about this time. In the middle of the seventh century came Thirugnana Sambandhar, the child-saint of Shirkali who in his third year was blessed with the Divine vision and from thence-forward looked upon Shiva and Parvati as his parents. The saintly old Appar, who in his young days entered a Jain monastery and later on embraced Shaivaism is a contemporary of Sambandhar.

Many sects of Shaivaism which are at present known only by name were in active existence at the time of Appar. Kapalis who made use of human skulls as begging bowls, Mavratis with long matted hair and garlands of bones, Pasupathars and others were seen in the streets of Kanchi and Tiruvarur. There was a whole galaxy of saints at this epoch. Aandal, the mystic poetess, the beloved bride of Sri Ranganathar, and her saintly father, Periyalwar, lived about this time. Sundaramurti-Nayanar the last of the Devara hymnists came about two centuries later. Tirumangaimannan, the Vaishnava saint is probably a contemporary of Sundarar. Sambandhar, Appar and Sundarar have left behind beautiful songs in praise of Shiva which to this day form the holy book of the Shaivites. Alwars have left behind the Thiruvaimoli, the Tamil Veda of the Vaishnavites. Manickavasagar, the prince of mystics, completed the work of Shaiva revival started by the Devara hymnists .

Buddhism disappeared from South India; but the unseen gentle influence of the Buddha, the ideal of compassion to all living creatures and the ethical principles expounded by Him persisted and became permanently incorporated in the religious life of Tamilakam. Jainism, although it received a set-back, continued to exist in the monasteries which besides being centres of religious life were also functioning as a sort of grammar schools. The elementary treatises on Grammar, Prosody and Poetics and the metrical lexicons (Nighantus) placed in the hands of young students of Tamil even to this day, have come from mediaeval Jain monasteries.

The Alwars and the Nayanmars breathed new life into the people and roused them from their lethargy. The pessimistic attitude of mind fostered in the Jain and Buddhist monasteries gave place to a living faith. The glorious example of the Shaivite and Vaishnavite saints helped the votaries of these religions to lead a life of service and self-less devotion. Princes lavished their wealth in building temples and in patronising poets.

The old dynasties of Tamilakam felt their own strength and refused to pay tribute to alien monarchs.  By successful encounters they not only freed themselves from the foreign yoke but also subdued their erstwhile rulers. Perhaps, it was during this time that the religion and culture of South India spread to far-off Champa and Cambodia. As a result of the awakening of the spirit, subsequent centuries witness an unprecedented literary revival. Jayamkondan's Kalingattuparani and Kamban's immortal epic reach such heights as were never before reached. Kamba-Ramayanam truly reflects the religious thought of the age in which it was written. The old cult of heroism which regarded valour as the supreme virtue and immortal fame here on earth as the equivalent of immortality hereafter, forms the basis of the lives so beautifully depicted by Kamban. The great God, who forgot His divinity on hearing the wails of a suffering world walks in the midst of kings, outcastes and recluses as a man among men sharing their joys and sorrows. In Him the Kshatriya ideal of life finds its fullest manifestation. Kamban has pictured this ideal to its utmost perfection.

We find contemporary kings and princes of the royal blood vying with one another in honouring this great poet, who stands unparalleled as the poet of manliness and Kshatriya prowess. The Devara hymns, the works of Manickavasagar and St. Thirumular and of various other Shaiva poets were collected and arranged into the eleven Thirumurais or holy books of Shaivaism and Sekkilar wrote his story of the Shaiva saints which formed the twelfth Thirumurai. Ramanujar, the great exponent of Visishtadwaita lived about this time. The sacred utterances of the Alwars were collected and arranged and formed the authoritative scriptures of the Vaishnavas.We pass on and come to an age in which men's minds turn once more to philosophical speculations. Meikandan appears on the scene. The same Divine power which made the child of Shiyali (St. Thirugnana-Sambandhar) utter words of wisdom couched in the language of poetry, speaks once more through the tongue of the child of Thiruvennainallur. The inspired message is now given in the language of philosophy, the language of dialectics and abstract thought. The message is however, the same. It is not mere scholastic philosophy that Meikandan expounded. The first half of Siva-gnana-bodham discusses the nature of bondage and freedom and the second half points out the path to the attainment of freedom. Herein we find a synthesis of pure reason and Yogic mysticism which transcends the bounds of reason. Sakala-agama-panditha, the Brahmin philosopher, surrenders at the feet of this Vellalah boy and becomes his first disciple taking the name of Arul-nandi-Sivacharya. He composes the Siva-gnana-siddhiyar and Irupa-irupathu and hands over the torch of knowledge to Marai-gnana-sambandha who hands it over to Umapathi-Sivacharya. Umapathi is the author of no less than eight works on Saiva Siddhanta of which one, the Sankalpa-Nirakarana, probably the last, was written in the Saka year 1235 (that is 620 years ago).

About the same time, Malik Kafoor occupied the city of Madura and the subsequent centuries witness the decline and fall of the Pandyas and the Cholas. Foreign invasions, civil wars and internecine intrigues well-nigh exhaust the energy of the hardy Tamil race. With the fall of Vijiyanagar, Hindu independence becomes a memory of the past and a sort of mental stupor sets down upon the people; they begin to dream of past glories. The world in which they lived and moved and had their being, had no attraction for them; they directed their thoughts to regions situated far beyond the mortal ken. Despair seizes the heart of the people, they feel tired of life and shrink in horror from the tortures that might await them on the other side of the grave. The old Tamil warrior, who laughed at death, never thought of inventing a hell; the Buddhists introduced a few, but the priests who came into prominence in this age of degradation ushered into existence twenty-eight crores of hells. The heroic legends of the Sangam age were almost forgotten; the Jataka Tales imported by the Buddhists were metamorphosed into new shapes; stories centering round the sage Agastya, episodes from the great epics and tales fabricated by priestly story-tellers to illustrate the inexorable working of Karma supplied the material for unusually long poetical compositions called Sthala-puranams.

The vast majority of these compositions are but the echoes of the only consolation which priest-craft has to offer to a fallen and degraded people. They exhort the readers not to mind their present trials and tribulations but to make regular offerings to the deities, bathe in thee sacred waters, observe fasts and prepare themselves to gain safe entrance to the portals of heaven, ordering out their present life in strict conformity to the dictates of their rightful spiritual guardians, the priests. Monasteries sprung up all over the country. Founded upon Buddhist and Jain models, these institutions fostered to a certain extent religious and secular learning. But their main function was the offering of elaborate worship to the deities and the departed saints who founded the Order. The presiding abbot was paid divine honours even during his life-time. Slowly and steadily these houses of religion began to accumulate large funds. Flatterers appeared in the guise of poets and received sumptuous meals and costly presents from the presiding abbots. The abbot, secure in his exalted eminence, often led a life of irresponsible ease and knew little or nothing of the miseries of the poor and the downtrodden. The poor people were daily growing poorer, and genuine scholarship was languishing for want of patronage, while a motley crowd of idle parasites consisting of priests, flatterers and the like, were fattening themselves on the food produced by the labour of the poor untouchables. The courts of the chieftains who ruled over Tamilakam in these troubled times were also infested with the same kind of parasitics vermin. Sthala-puranas were made to order and wherever incidents or ideas were wanting they were freely drawn from the inexhaustible source of Sanskrit literature.

The monasteries were not all of one persuasion. All the various sects of Hinduism had their own Maths. In spite of the laxity that was spreading over these institutions they served the very useful purpose of preserving the old manuscripts and keeping in-extinguished the lamp of learning that was handed down to them through the centuries. Thiruvavaduthurai Adhinam which claims an unbroken line of succession from Meikandan has preserved the Saiva Siddhanta Philosophy and has also produced a school of grammarians well-versed both in Sanskrit and Tamil. The chronicles of this Math state that during the reign of Virupaksha Raja (probably Virupaksha I of Vijayanagar), one Sivaprakasa esikar of the Thiruvavaduthurai Math preached the doctrines of Virashaivam in the presence of Linganna, one of the ministers of the king. The preaching was so good that the minister requested the monk to be the head of the Virashaiva Math at Thiruvannamalai. With the permission of his monastic superior, Sivaprakasar took charge of the Thiruvannamalai Athinam. This Sivaprakasar should not be confused with Thuraimangalam Sivaprakasa Swamigal, the author of many standard works on Virashaiva philosophy. From the Dharmapura Athinam came Kumara-guru-para Swamigal, the gifted poet and founder of the Thiru-Panandal Athinam. Sivagra Yogigal of Suriyanarkoil Athinam, is another great exponent of Saiva Siddhanata philosophy. By the beginning of the fourteenth century Vedanta philosophy which had its votaries from very early times had extended its influence to such an extent as to be considered a serious rival to Saiva Siddhanta. This is evident from the fact that Arul-nandi-Sivacharya as well as Umapathi-Sivacharya attempt to refute at length the doctrine of Vedantic idealism. There were Vedanta Maths in various parts of the country where instruction was imparted through the medium of Tamil. Veerai Alawandar, Sri Pattar, Tatwa Rayar and Kannudaiya Vallalar are among those who have enriched Tamil literature with Vedantic thought. The Vaishnava Maths were instrumental in bringing out commentaries on the Divya Prabandhams.

Towards the end of the seventeenth century, Father Beschi was preaching the doctrines of Roman Catholic Christianity and was creating a Christian Tamil literature. Omar, the Tamil poet, and others of Pillai-perumal-aiyengar was adding to Vaishnava Tamil literature. Thayumanavar, the mystic saint, sets at ease the warring schools of Vedanta and Siddhanta by pointing out the harmony that underlies the two schools of thought. About a century later, comes Ramalinga Swamigal whose devotional humans are such as would melt the stoniest of hearts. Arumuga Navalar appears in Jaffna and with a reformer's zeal stems the tide of Christian proselytization and extensively makes use of the printing press to popularise the teachings of Shaivaism. The general awakening in Bharat-varsha rouses the South from its slumber and the message of harmony propounded by Swami Vivekananda, Hinduism's representative to the world's parliament of religions, broadens the outlook of the Hindus and makes them feel that their religion is wide enough to receive light from all quarters and strong enough to withstand all opposition.

We come to modern times. The venerable figure of Mahamahopadhyaya Dr. Swaminatha Iyer dominates the realm of Tamil literature for fully half a century. Ceaselessly labouring with untiring patience and industry, he carefully edits and brings out book after book of the ancient Tamil classics, thereby silently ushering in a renaissance in Tamil land. It may perhaps take another half century for Tamilakam to realise the extent of the services rendered to it by the venerable pundit. Only a small fraction of the material that lay hidden in these ancient books has so far been brought to light. But that little was sufficient to infuse new life into the Tamilians. The gloom that overshadowed the country during the past four centuries is slowly passing away and a new dawn is in sight. The harbinger of the approaching dawn is our latest poet Subrahmanya Bharathi. He is essentially a religious poet. With religious mysticism he combines an unbounded love for the poor and the downtrodden. The poems that he addresses to Kannan (Sri Krishna) are as sweet and soul-stirring as any that we meet with in ancient literature; the hymns to Shakti are grander than the old hymns addressed to Kotravai. The charm of his lyrics, and the dignified tone of his patriotic songs have endeared him to his people. The healthy outlook on life underlying his poems has a universal appeal. He views humanity as a whole and stands ready to embrace the North and the South, the East and the West, the Brahman and the outcaste as well as the educated and the illiterate. May the Tamil people, the inheritors of a glorious civilisation, view the world with the eyes of Bharathi, their latest poet and rising above narrow sectarianism and petty social conventions march on the path that will lead them to the Divine Spirit, which is the source of all goodness, beauty and truth.