ef;fPud;

jkpoH rkak; vJ? ,J vd;d Nfs;tp? irt rkak;jhd; jkpoUila rkak;. mJ 14>000 Mz;L goik tha;e;j rkak;. rpe;Jntsp ehfupf fhyj;jpYk; irt rkak; jioj;J ,Ue;jpUf;fpwJ vd;gjw;F rhd;Wfs; Vuhsk; cz;L vd;W irtHfs; thjpLfpwhHfs;.

flTs;> kjk;> nkhop ,tw;Wf;Fj; njhd;ikahd tuyhW ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;. mg;gb ,Ue;jhy; kl;LNk mit Nkyhdit> caHthdit vd;w xU jtwhd vz;zk; jkpoHfsplk; ,Ug;gjhy;jhd; ,g;gb mwpTf;F xj;Jtuhj> tuyhw;Wf;F Kuzhd Guhzf; fijfis nrhy;y Ntz;ba fl;lhak; vOfpwJ.

kdpjdJ tuyhw;Wf; fhyj;jpy; 14>000 Mz;Lfs; ePz;l fhyk; my;y. Mdhy; kdpjd; jd;idg;gw;wp fy;ypYk;> fspkz;zpYk;> NjhypYk; Fwpg;Gf;fs; vOjpa fhyj;NjhL xg;gpl;Lg;  ghHj;jhy; 14>000 Mz;Lfs; kpf ePz;l fhykhFk;.

khe;j ,dk; kdpjf; FUq;fpy; ,Ue;J gpupe;J jdpNa tsHr;rp milaj; njhlq;fpa fhyk; RkhH 30 ,yl;rk; Mz;Lfs; ,Uf;Fk; vd kdpjEhyhH (Anthropologists) nrhy;fpwhHfs;. me;j kdpjf; Fuq;F ,dk;  Hominids vd;W miof;fg;gl;lhHfs;.

mjd;gpd; cU kyHr;rpapy; (evolution) 18-10 ,yl;rk; Mz;LfSf;F Kd;dH NfhNkh ,wf;l]; ( Homo- erectus ) vd;w khe;j ,dk; Njhd;wpaJ. ,tHfs; Mgpupf;fh> Mrpah fz;lq;fspy; 300>000 Mz;Lfs; Kd;tiu tho;e;jhHfs;.

mtHfisj; njhlHe;J NfhNkh Nrg;gpad;]; (Home-sapiens) Njhd;wpdhHfs;. ,tHfsJ fhyk; 200>000-300>000 Mz;LfshFk;. ,tHfisj; njhlHe;J epahe;jHjhy; (Neanderthal) vd;w khe;j ,dk; Njhd;wpaJ.

gpd;dH 40>000-30>000 Mz;Ltiu ,d;iwa etPd kdpjd; Njhd;wpdhd;. epahe;jHjhy; kdpjd; rpy fhyk; kdpjNdhL rk fhyj;jpy; tho;e;jJk; cz;L. Mdhy; epahe;jHjhy; kdpjHfs; 27>000 Mz;lstpy; Kw;whf kiwe;J NghdhHfs;.

njhy;ypashHfsJ fz;Nzhl;lj;jpy; khe;j ,dj;jpd; ehfupf tsHr;rpf; fhyj;ijg; gpd;tUkhW tupirg; gLj;jyhk;.

gioa fw;fhyk;   - 20 ,yl;rk; Mz;Lfs;
,ilf; fw;fhyk;   - fp.K. 10>500- 4>300
Gjpa fw;fhyk;    - fp.K.4>300- 3300
ntz;fyf; fhyk;  - fp.K. 3300 - 1200
,Ug;Gf; fhyk;    - fp.K.1200- 586

rpe;Jntsp ehfupfk; (fug;gd; kw;Wk; nkhnfd;[jhNuh)              - fp.K. 3000- 1900

kj;jpa Mrpahtpy; ,Ue;J te;j MupaH FbNaw;wk; rpe;J gs;sj;jhf;F - fp.K.1300
MupaH FbNaw;wk; fq;if gs;sj;jhf;F                         - fp.K.1000
,Uf;F Ntjk;                                             - fp.K. 1200- 900
,uhkhaz fhyk;                                          - fp.K. 1500
ghuj fhyk;                                               - fp.K.1300
Vida Ntjq;fs; cgepljq;fs;                                - fp.K.500
kfhtPuH fhyk; - fp.K.550
Gj;jH fhyk; - fp.K. 563-483

NkNy jug;gl;Ls;s juTfs; tuyhw;Wf;F Ke;jpa (fp.K.3000-1200) kdpj ehfupf tsHr;rpapd; Kf;fpa iky; fw;fs; MFk;.

rpe;Jntsp kf;fs; irt rkaj;jtH my;yJ ehy;Ntj kjj;jtHfs; vd;W xU thjj;Jf;F itj;Jf; nfhz;lhy; $l mjd; fhyk; 5>000 Mz;Lfs; kl;LNk. mjdhy; irtk; 14>000 Mz;Lfshf epiyj;J tUfpwJ vd;w $w;W Kw;wpYk; caHT etpHr;rpNa!

,d;W jkpopy; fpilf;ff; $ba kpfg; goikahd Ehy; njhy;fhg;gpak;. ,J xU ,yf;fz Ehy;.

,jid ,aw;wpatH njhy;fhg;gpaH. ,tuJ fhyk; vJntd;W mwpjpapl;Lr; nrhy;y KbahJ ,Uf;fpwJ. vdpDk; ,tH ,ilr; rq;f fhyj;ijr; NrHe;jtH vd;W nrhy;yg;gLfpwJ. vdNt ,tH fp.K.500-300 ,ilapy; tho;e;jpUf;fyhk; vd mwpQHfs; fUJfpwhHfs;.

vJ vg;gb ,Ug;gpDk; njhy;fhg;gpak; jkpo;kf;fspd; kpfg; goikahd xU rKjhaf; fl;Lkhdj;ij glk; gpbj;Jf; fhl;LfpwJ vd;gjpy; ma;ak; vJTkpy;iy.

FwpQ;rp epy (kiy) kf;fs; Ntl;ilahbAk;>

Ky;iy epy (fhL) kf;fs; Mdpiu Nka;j;Jk;>

kUjepy (Mw;Wg;gLf;if) kf;fs; gapH nra;Jk;>

nea;jy; epy (flNyhuk;) kf;fs; kPd; gpbj;Jk;

tho;e;j rKjhaj;ijNa njhy;fhg;gpaj;jpy; fhzf; $bajhf ,Uf;fpwJ.

gpwnkhopAk;> gpwgz;ghLk; jkpo; nkhopNahLk; jkpo;g; gz;ghNlhLk; cwTnfhs;sj; njhlq;fpa fhyj;jpy;jhd; njhy;fhg;gpak; Njhd;wpapUf;fpwJ.

njhy;fhg;gpaNu jdJ Ehw;ghf;fspy; $wg;gLk; tpjpfSf;F jdf;F Kd;dUk; jdJ fhyj;jpYk; ,Ue;j GytHfsJ $w;Wf;fisr; vd;g> vd;kdhH GytH> nkhopg> ahg;ngd nkhopg ahg;gwp GytH vd;W rhd;W fhl;LthH.

njhy;fhg;gpak; vOj;J> nrhy;> nghUs; %d;Wf;Fk; ,yf;fzk; tFf;fpd;wJ. nghUsjpfhuk; cyfj; Njhw;wk;> capHfspd; tifg;ghL> ntt;NtW epyk;> me;j epyj;Jf;Fupa nja;tq;fs;> kf;fs;> kf;fspd; mftho;f;if> Gwtho;f;if newpfs;> MltHf;Fupa gz;Gfs;> ngz;fSf;Fupa  gz;Gfs;> kuq;fs;> tpyq;Ffs;> ,yf;fpa tiffs;> ,yf;fpaf; Nfhl;ghLfs;> ,yf;fpa kuGfs;> ,yf;fpaj; jpwdha;Tfs;> clypYk; cs;sj;jpYk; Njhd;Wk; nka;g;ghLfs; ,g;gb xl;L nkhj;j r%fj;ijg; gw;wpr; nrhy;fpwJ.

njhy;fhg;gpaj;jpy; rkak; my;yJ kjk; vd;w nrhy; ,y;iy. vy;yhk; ty;y> vy;yhk; njupe;j> vq;Fk; epiwe;j KOKjw; flTs; my;yJ guk;nghUs;  vd;w tiutpyf;fzj;Jf;F mika xU KOKjw; flTs; Fwpg;gplg;gltpy;iy. flTs; vd;w nrhy; kpf mUikahfg; gad;gLj;Jk; ,lj;jpy; mJ NjtHfisf; Fwpf;fNt ifahsg;gl;Ls;sJ.

vLj;Jf; fhl;lhfr; nrhy;y Ntz;Lnkd;why; nghUsjpfhuk>; Gwj;jpizapay; (27)-

"nfhbepiy> fe;jop> ts;sp vd;w
tLePq;F rpwg;gpd; Kjyd %d;Wk;
flTs; tho;j;njhL fz;zpa tUNk."

flTs; tho;j;njhL fz;zpa tUNk vd;gjd; nghUs; QhapW> jpq;fs;> jP %d;iwAk; tho;j;JtJk; mkuH tho;j;Jgl NghyNt k; tUk; vd;gNj.

"fhkg; gFjp flTSk; tiuahH
VNdhH ghq;fpDk; vd;kdhH GytH."

(njhy;.nghUs;-Gwj;jpizapay; -R+j;jpuk; 23)

",d;gg; gFjpfisf; flTsplkpUe;Jk; ePf;fkhl;lhHfs;. kf;fsplkpUe;Jk;  ePf;f khl;lhHfs; vd;W GytH $WtH" vd;gNj ,jd; nghUs;. mJ flTs; khl;Lf; flTl; ngz;bH eag;gdTk;> mtH khl;L khdplg; ngz;bH eagdg;gTk;> flTs; khdplg; ngz;biu eag;gdTk;> gpwTk; Mk;" vd;gJ er;rpdhHf;fpdpaH ciu.

njhy;fhg;gpaH fhyj;jpy;  jkpofj;jpy; gy nja;t tzf;fq;fs; ,Ue;jd. jpUkhy;> KUfd;> ,e;jpud;> tUzd;> nfhw;wit> QhapW> jpq;fs;> jP Kjypaitfisj; jkpoHfs; nja;tq;fshf tzq;fp te;jdH.  ,ikatHfs; vd;w NjtHfisAk; nja;tq;fshff; nfhz;bUe;jdH.

njhy;fhg;gpaH fhyj;jpy; eLfy; tzf;fk; gutyhf ,Ue;jpUf;fpwJ. eLfy; tzf;fk;gw;wp njhy;fhg;gpaH tpupthd nra;jpfisj; je;jpUf;fpwhH.

irt rkaj;jtHfSf;F Vkhw;wk; jUk; nra;jp vd;dntd;why; njhy;fhg;gpaH fhyj;jpy; rpt topghL ,Uf;ftpy;iy. rptidf; Fwpf;Fk; nrhy; 1610 njhy;fhg;gpa Ehw;ghf;fspy; xd;wpYk; ,y;iy. ehy; Ntjq;fspy; Kjy; Ntjkhd ,Uf;F NtjKk; rptidf; Fwpf;ftpy;iy vd;gJk;  <q;F ftdpf;fj;jf;fJ.

NrNahd; vd;w nrhy; rptidf; Fwpg;gjhfr; rpyH nrhy;fpwhHfs;. NrNahd; vd;why; nrk;ik> rpte;j epwj;Njhd;> vdNt NrNahd; rptidf; Fwpf;fpwJ vd;gH. Ntjj;jpy; rptd; cUj;jpud; vdf; Fwpg;gplg;gLfpwhd;. Mdhy; mtdJ ngaiu cr;rupf;ff; $lhnjd;Wk;> mtid ahfrhiyf;F miof;ff; $lhnjd;Wk;> gyp nfhLf;Fk;NghJ CUf;F Gwj;Nj nfhLf;fg;gl Ntz;Lk; vdr; nrhy;yg;gl;lJ. ,Uf;F Ntjj;jpy; cUj;jpud; mr;rk; jUk; nja;tkhf rpj;jupf;fg;gl;bUf;fpwhd;.

FwpQ;rp epyj;Jj; nja;tj;ij NrNahd; vd;W njhy;fhg;gpaH Fwpf;fpwhH.  FwpQ;rp epyj; nja;tk; KUfd;> nrt;Nts;> NrNahd; vd;gNj njhd;W njhl;L tUk; tof;fkhFk;. FwpQ;rp epykf;fs; FwtH> Fwj;jpaH vdj; njhy;fhg;gpak; $Wtjhy; KUfd; jpUkzk; nra;j ts;sp FwpQ;rp epyj;Jf; Fwj;jpg; ngz;. KUfd; jkpo;f; flTs; vd;W Nghw;wg;gLtjw;F ,JTk; xU fhuzk;.

vdNt ,yf;fpa tof;fpYk;> cyfpay; tof;fpYk; FwpQ;rpj; nja;tk; KUfdhfNt vz;zg;gLfpwhd;. rptngUkhd; FwpQ;rpj; nja;tk; vd;gjw;F ,yf;fpa tof;Fk; ,y;iy. cyf tof;Fk; ,y;iy. ,Ue;jpUe;jhy; njhy;fhg;gpaH epr;rak; Rl;bapUg;ghH.

capHfs; flTshy; gilf;fg; gl;ljhf njhy;fhg;gpaj;jpy; ve;jf; Fwpg;Gk; ,y;iy. khwhf "epyKk;> ePUk;> jPAk;> fhw;Wk;> tpz;Zk; fye;jnjhU kaf;fkhd epiyapy; cyfk; cz;lhapw;W. ,itahTk; XH vy;iyf;F cl;gl;L ,aq;fpf; nfhz;bUe;j epiyapy; capHfs; Njhd;wpw;W" vdj; njhy;fhg;gpaH ,d;iwa mwptpay; fz;Lgpbg;ig md;Nw $WapUf;fpwhH.

"epyk; jP ePH tsp tpRk;NghL ma;e;Jk;
fye;j kaf;fk; cyfk; Mjypd;.               (njhy;. kugpay; 1589)

,Nj Nghy; ,d;iwa cU kyHr;rpia xl;bajhf capHfis XuwpT njhlf;fk; MwwpT tiu vLj;Jf;fhl;NlhL tpsf;fpf; $WfpwhH.

fp.K. Ie;jhk; Ehw;whz;by; jkpofj;jpy; rptd; vd;w nja;tNkh rpt kjNkh ,Uf;ftpy;iy vd;;gJ rhkp rpjk;gudhH Nghd;w jkpowpQHfsJ JzpghFk;.

njhy;fhg;gpaj;Jf;Fg; gpe;jpa filr;rq;f ,yf;fpf;fpaq;fspy; rptidg; gw;wpa Fwpg;Gf;fs; fhzg;gLfpd;wd."Kf;fl; nry;tH efH" vdg; GwehDhw;wpd; 6 Mk; ghly; Fwpf;fpwJ. Ehw;wpj; njhz;Zhw;nwl;lhtJ ghly; jpUkhiy "My; mkH flTs;" vdf; Fwpf;fpwJ.

njhy;fhg;gpaH fhyk;NghyNt rq;f fhyj;jpy; jkpo; kf;fspilNa Nt&d;wp ,Ue;j topghL eLfy; tzf;fkhFk;. Gwg;ghly; 265 CUf;Fg; Gwj;Nj ,Ue;j jplypy;  Ntq;if kyHfis nts;spa gde;Njhl;NlhL tputpj; njhLj;J khiyia mzptpj;J NfhtyH xU tPuDf;F fy; el;lijf; $WfpwJ.

,f; fw;fspy; tPudpd; ngaUk; ngUkpjKk; vOjg;gl;L mzpkapw; gPypAk; kyH khiyfSk; #l;lg;gl;ld vd mfg;ghly; xd;W (67) Fwpf;fpwJ.

eLfy; topghl;by; capHg;gyp nfhLf;fg;gl;lJ. giwfs; Kof;fg;gl;ld. Njhg;gpf;fs; gilf;fg;gl;lJ (mfk; 35). ,y;yq;fspy; mlg;gLk; fs;spidAila rpw;WhH kf;fs; Gwj;Nj ,Ue;j eLfw;fis ed;dPuhl;bdH. tpbaw; fhyj;J gypiag; gilj;J> nea; tpsf;Nfw;wpdH. Jhgk; fhl;bdH. Nkfk; Nghd;w Gif vOe;J njUtpy; kzk; gug;gpaJ (Gwk;229).

kwf;Fb gpwe;j kf;fs; tpOg;Gz;gl;L tPo;e;j tPudJ ngaUk; gPLk; vOjp el;l fy;iyf; flTshff; fUjp topgLjyd;wp ney; nrhupe;J topgLk; nja;tq;fs; NtW ,y;iy (Gwk; 335).

eLfy; tzf;fNk ehsiltpy; rpW nja;t tzf;fkhfTk;> ngUe;nja;t tzf;fkhfTk; tsHr;rp mile;jJ. nja;tk; te;J ntwpahba Ntyd; ehsiltpy; ifNty; jhq;fpa KUfdhf topglg;gl;lhd;. Ntiyj;jhq;fpatd; Ntyd; vdg;gl;lhd;.

nfhy;Yk; jd;ikAs;s Ntiyj; jhq;fpapUg;gtd; Ntyd;. mtd; nja;tj;jpd; Nfhgj;ij mwpe;J mijj; jpUg;jp nra;Ak; rpwg;Gs;std;. mtd; fhe;jspd; kyH khiyia mzpe;J cUf;nfhz;L MLthd;. ,e;j Ml;lk; fhe;js; vd miof;fg;gl;lJ.

njhy;fhg;gpaH Fwpg;gpLk; Itif epyj; nja;tq;fshd khNahd;> NrNahd;> Nte;jd;> tUzd;> nfhw;wit me;j epyq;fSf;Fupa tPuH tPuhq;fid Mf ,Ue;jpUf;fyhk;.

,d;W ,we;jtHfSf;F mtHfs; capNuhL ,Ue;jNghJ tpUk;gp cz;l czit Vohk; ehs; md;W fha;r;rpg; gilg;gJk;> CHf; Nfhapy;fspy; G+rhupfs; cUte;J Mb mUs;thf;Fr;  nrhy;tJk;  rq;f fhy eLfy; tzf;fk; kw;Wk; ntwpahl;bd; vr;rq;fNs.

flw;fiuapy; tho;e;j gujtH KO epyh ehspy; Rwh kPdpd; nfhk;gpid kzypy; el;L mjidj; nja;tkhf topgl;ldH. mjw;F kyH khiyfis mzpe;J gdq;fs;isAk; new;fs;isAk; cz;L kfpo;e;jdH (gl;bdg;. 86-96).

ijj;jpq;fs; Kjy; ehspy; kf;fs; ePuhb Nehd;G ,Ue;jdH vd;w nra;jp njhif Ehypy; xd;whd ew;wpizapy; (22) fhzg;gLfpwJ. fhHj;jpif ehspy; caHe;j kiyapy; tpsf;Ffis Vw;wp itg;gJ tof;fk; vd ghiyghba ngUq;fLq;Nfh vd;w Nrukd;dd; $wpAs;shd;.

fliy mLj;j jpUg;guq;Fd;wj;jpy; KUfd; Nfhapy; ,Ue;jJ. mq;F Xa;tpy;yhky; jpUtpohf;fs; ele;jd vd mfehDhW (59> 149) njuptpf;fpwJ.

xt;NthH CupYk; mk;gyk; (nghjp) ,Ue;jJ. mjpy; fe;J vd;Dk; topghl;Lf;Fupa kuj;Jhz; (287) ,Ue;jJ. mjid CH kf;fs; tpbfhiyapy; topgl;ldH.

njhy;fhg;gpaH fhyj;J 'NrNahd; Nka iktiu cyf' FwpQ;rp epyj; nja;tk; rq;f fhyj;jpy; KUff; flTshfj; Njhw;wk; ngw;whH. ,e;jg; goik fhuzkhfNt KUfd; jkpo;f; flTs; vd;W miof;fg;LfpwhH.

Fwj;jp Fyj;J ts;spia kze;j KUfd; Ntjf; flTshd ];fe;jrhkp- nja;tahid vd;w Mupaf; flTsNuhL ,izf;fg;gl;lNghJ mtUf;F ,uz;L kidtpaH tha;f;fg; ngw;whH. ehsiltpy; KUfd; rptdhuJ kfd; vdTk; jpUkhypd; kUfd; vdTk;> nfhw;witapd; kfd; vdTk; miof;fg;gl;lhd;.

rq;f ,yf;fpaq;fspy; 'nty;NghHr; Nrva;' 'nty;NghHf; nfhw;witr; rpWt' vd KUfd; NghHf; flTshfTk; nfhw;witapd; gps;isahfTk; rpj;jpupf;fg;gLfpwhd;.

NrNahd; KUfdhf Njhw;wk; ngw;wNghJ 'khNahd; Nka fhLiw cyf" Ky;iy epyj;  nja;tk; jpUkhy; Mf Njhw;wk; ngw;whH. gpd;dH jpUkhy; Mupaf; flTshd tpl;LZ  (tp\;Z) NthL ,izf;fg;gl;lhH.

murid jpUkhYf;F xg;gpl;L tho;j;Jk; tof;fk; njhy;fhg;gpaH fhyj;jpy; ,Ue;jpUf;fpwJ. khNahDf;Fupa Ky;iy epyj;jpd; ngUikiaAk; mopahj GfioAk; murNdhL ,izj;Jg; ghuhl;lg;gl;lJ. ,J G+it epiy vd miof;fg;gl;lJ.

rq;f fhyj;jpd; ,Wjpapy; rkzk;> gTj;jk; Mupaupd; ehy;Ntj rdhjd jHkk; jkpo;ehl;bd; efug; Gwq;fspy; ed;F Nt&d;wp ,Ue;jJ.

rkzg; gs;spfs;> ehy;tHzg; ghFghL> Nts;tp topghL> ghuj> ,uhkaz Guhzf; fijfs; rq;fj; jkpoupilNa ed;F gutpapUe;jd. ghHg;gdHfSf;F jdpf; FbapUg;Gf;fs; ,Ue;jd. %Nte;jHfs; Mupa Nts;tpfis nra;tpj;jhHfs;. ghHg;ghHf;F kd;dHfspd; muz;kid thapy; vd;Wk; mfyj; jpwe;jpUf;Fk; vd;W rpWghzhw;Wg;gil ghly; (203-205) $WfpwJ. ,J ghHg;gdHfsJ nry;thf;F caHe;jpUe;jijf; fhl;LfpwJ.

'Nja;jy; cz;ikAk; ngUfy; cz;ikAk;
kha;jy; cz;ikAk; gpwj;jy; cz;ikAk;'

vd;w GwehDhw;W (27) tupfs; vd;w nghUs; Kjy; thjk;> Gw cyF cz;ikad;W vd;w fUj;J Kjy; thjj;ij kWf;fpwJ. cyfKk; mjd; ,af;fKk; cz;ik vdr; nrhy;fpwH.

capH clk;G ,uz;Lk; jdpj;jdp vd;w fUj;J Kjy; Nfhl;ghl;il Vw;Wf; nfhs;shjtHfSk; rq;f fhyj;jpy; tho;e;jpUf;fpwhHfs;. 'clk;nghL ,d;DapH tpUk;Gk; fpoik' (clk;NghL tho ,d;DapH ngw;Ws;s cupik) vd;w GytH nghj;jpahupd; ghly; tupfs; (223) nghUs; Kjy;thj rhHGilaJ.

KuQ;rpA+H KbehfuhaH vd;w GytH ghba GwehDhw;Wg; ghly;; (Gwk; 2) G+jtpay; fUj;ij Kd;itf;fpwJ.

'kz; jpzpe;j epyDk;
epyd; Ve;jpa tpRk;Gk;
tpRk;G ijtU tspAk;
tspj; jiy,a jPAk;
jPKuzpa ePUk;> vd;hwhq;F
Ik;ngUk; G+jj;J ,aw;ifNghy.'

kWgpwg;G ,Uf;fyhk; my;yJ ,Uf;fhkYk; ,Uf;fyhk; vd;w ,uz;L fUj;Jk; rq;f fhyj;jpy; ,Ue;Js;sJ. Nghg;ngUQ; Nrhodpd; ghba Gwg;ghly; (214) kWgpwg;Gf; Nfhl;ghl;il kWg;gtHfSk; ,Ue;jpUf;fpwhHfs; vd;gij njspT gLj;JfpwJ.

flTs; cz;L vd;w fUj;JKjy; thjk; gpwe;jNghNj flTs; ,y;iy vd;w nghUs;Kjy; thjKk; gpwe;J tpl;lJ. tlnkhop Ehy;fspy; nghUs;Kjy; thjk; 'cyfha;jk;' vd miof;fg;gl;lJ.

rq;ffhyj; jkpoHfspilNa itjPf newp fhy;nfhs;sj; njhlq;fp tpl;lJ. kd;dHfs; kl;lj;jpYk; efuq;fspYk; rq;fg; ghly;fspy; ghHg;gdH me;jzH vd;W Fwpf;fg;gl;L mtHfsJ tho;f;ifKiw> jP tsHj;jy;> NtjNts;tpfs; nra;jy;> Ntk; XJjy;  gw;wpa Fwpg;Gfs; kpFe;J fhzg;gLfpwJ.

rq;ffhyg; ghu;g;gdu;fs;

fgpyH jd;id me;jzd; vd;W ngUikahfr; nrhy;yp nfhs;fpwhH.

gy;ahidr; nry;nfOFl;Ltd; ghiyf; fTjkdhiuf; nfhz;L gj;J ngUNts;tp nra;jhd;.

ghz;bad; jiyahdq;fhdj;Jr; nrUntd;w neLQ;nropad; itjPf xOf;fj;jpy; rpwe;jpUe;jhd;.

Nrhod; ,uhr#ak; Ntl;l ngUew;fps;sp vd;w ngaH ,td; gy Nts;tpfs; nra;jhd; vd;gijf; fhl;LfpwJ. (Gwk; 16)  

ghz;bad; gy;ahfrhiy KJFLkpg; ngUtOjp Nts;tpfs; gy nra;jhd;. mjidf; fz;L nel;bikahH vd;w GytH mtd; Nts;tpfs; gy nra;J Kbj;J mt; Nts;tpr; rhiyfspy; el;l A+gq;fSk; gy> tiraw;wtH njhifNah? A+gq;fspd; njhifNah> ,tw;Ws; kpf njhifahJ” vd;W Nfl;fpd;whH. ( Gwk; 6> 9> 12> 15> 64)

,it ahTk; itjPf newp jkpoupilNa Kjypy; fhy;nfhz;L gpd;dH ed;F Nt&d;wp tpl;ljw;F tYthd rhd;Wfs;. (jkpoH ehfupfKk; gz;ghLk; gf;fk; 266) fupfhyd;> gy;ahfrhiy KJFLkp ngUtOjp Nghd;w kd;dHfs; ngUk; nghUl;nrytpy; Nts;tpfs; nra;J ghHg;gdHfSf;F nghd;Dk; kzpAk; nfhLj;J Nkd;ikg; gLj;jpapUf;fpwhHfs;.

mtpnrhupe;J Mapuk; Ntl;lypd; xd;wd;
capH nrFj;J cz;zhik ed;W.               (mwj;Jg;ghy; mjp. 26- Fws; 259)

vd;w Fwspy; Nts;tp Ntl;liyj; jpUts;StH fz;bf;ftpy;iy. Nts;tp nra;tijtpl nfhy;yhik ed;W vd;Wjhd; $WfpwhH.

fpwpj;J gpwg;gjw;Fr; rpy E}W Mz;LfSf;F Kd;gpUe;Nj Mupag; ghu;g;gdu;fs; njhlu;r;rpahf rpw;wiyfisg; Nghyf; FLk;gk; FLk;gkhf tlf;fpypUe;J te;J jkpof ka;ag; gFjpfspy; FbNawj; njhlq;fpdhu;fs;. Gfhu;> kJiu> fhQ;rp> tQ;rp Kjypa efuq;fspYk; Mw;Nwhuq;fspYk; ney; tpisr;ry; kpFe;j tay; R+o;e;j Cu;fspYk;> ,tu;fs; jq;fSila jdpj;j milahsq;fNshLk;> gz;ghl;L mk;rq;fNshLk; tho;e;jhu;fs;. Vida jkpofkf;fsplkpUe;J jq;fSila eil> cil> ghtid> gof;f tof;fq;fs;> Rghtq;fs;> njhopy;> epj;jpa fu;kq;fs; Kjypatw;wpy; ghu;j;jTlNd milahsk; fz;Lnfhs;Sk; tpjj;jpy; NtWgLj;jpf; fhl;b tho;e;jhu;fs;. ,tw;why; jhd; jq;fSf;Fg; ngUk; kupahij ,Uf;fpwjhf ek;g itj;jhu;fs;.

jiyapy; FLkp itj;jhu;fs; (ma;q;FWE}W. 202). (Vida jkpou;fs; $e;jy; tsu;j;jhu;fs;)

fhtpf;fy;yhy; Njha;j;Jf; fhtp A+l;lg;gl;l Milia mzpe;J (Ky;iyg; ghl;L)> ifapy; Fil gpbj;J> gplupapy; cwpAk;> fufKk;> Kf;NfhYk; mire;jhlg; ghu;g;gdg; GNuhfpju;fs; gazk; nra;jhu;fs; (fypj; njhif 9).

cyfpYs;s kf;fistplj; jhq;fNs 'Gyd; mOf;F' ,y;yhjtu;fs; vd;w fl;Lf;fijiag; gug;gpdhu;fs; (GwehD}W 126). ,e;jr; Rj;jf; nfhs;ifiaj; jq;fsJ caupa nfhs;ifahf epiy ehl;bdhu;fs;.

gpwu; ePuhba Mw;wpy; Fspg;gijAk;> rlq;F nra;tijAk; jtpu;j;jhu;fs;. GJnts;sj;jpy; jkpo;kf;fs; GJg;Gdyhl;lk; vd;w tpohitf; nfhz;lhbaNghJ> me;j nts;sj;jpy; mtu;fs; fye;j eWkzg; nghUs;fshYk;> fs;shYk; fyq;fshf Mdjhy; mjpy; ePuhlTk; ,y;iy; thiaf;$lf; nfhg;gspf;ftpy;iy (gupghly; 6> gupghly; jpul;L 2).

kUj epyq;fspYk;> Ky;iy epyq;fspYk; jq;fSf;nfd;W jdpf; FbNaw;wq;fis cz;lhf;fpdhu;fs; (ew;wpiz 321).

tay; tskpf;f M%u; vd;w Cu; ghu;g;gdu;fspd; Cuhff; Fwpg;gplg;gl;lJ (rpWghzhw;Wg; gil). ,tu;fSila tPl;il 'tskid' (FwpQ;rpg; ghl;L) vd;W Gytu; Nghw;wpdu;.

fd;W fl;ba ge;jYk;> rhzj;jhy; ('igQ;NrW') nkOfpa Mrhukpf;f ey;y tPLk; ghu;g;gdupd; tPL.

,q;Nf> eha;> Nfhop Mfpa tw;iwf; fhz KbahJ. ,tw;Wf;Fg; gjpyhff; fpspfis tsu;j;jhu;fs;. ,it$l ,tu;fSila Ntjj;ij Xjpdthk; (ngUk;gh zhw;Wg; gil)....

(gpuhzpfs; tsu;g;gjpNy$l tU;zNgjk; ,Ue;jJ. eha;> Nfhop> gd;wp tsu;f;f 'fPo;rhjp'; gR> fpsp tsu;f;f Nky;[hjp).

Ntjj;ijg; ghu;g;gdu; XJtJ ehl;Lf;F ey;yJ vd;whapw;W. itjPf ka;aq;fspy; rpwg;gplk; ngw;wpUe;j kJiu efuj;jpy; jkpo; kf;fs;> tpbaw;fhiyapy; Nrty; $tpf; fz; tpopg;gjpy;iyahk;. ghu;g;gdu; Xjpa Ntjj;ijf; Nfl;Lj;jhd; fz; tpopg;ghu;fshk;! (gupghly; jpul;L).

'ehd;kiw Kjy;tu;'> 'mwpTil me;jzu;'> 'kiw fhg;ghsu;'> 'Nfs;tp me;jzu;'> 'Md;w Nfs;tp mlq;fpa nfhs;ifagsH'> 'gy; Nts;tpj;Jiw Nghfpa njhy;yhiz ey;yhrpupau;' (gl;bdg;ghiy> kJiuf; fhQ;rp) vd;nwy;yhk;> ghu;g;g du;fisg; Gytu;fs; mwpT Kjy;tu;fshfg; Nghw;wpdhu;fs;.

gpw jkpou;fs; ,tu;fisj; njhOjhu;fs; (ma;q;FWE}W 387)

,ue;J mwpTiu Nfl;lhu;fs; (ma;q;FWE}W 384).

'cau;e;Njhu;' vd;w xNu nrhy;yhy;> thdj;Jj; Njtu;fSk;> ,e;jg; ghu;g;gdu;fSk; Fwpf;fg;gl;lhu;fs; (FWe; njhif 233).

,uz;Nl gpwg;Gk;> ,U ngaUk;> <ukhd neQ;rKk; nfhz;l ghu;g;gdupd; itjPf jUkj;jpy; Guhzf; flTs;fs; jq;fpapUg;gjhff; $wpdhu;fs; (gupghly; 14)> (GwehD}W 367)

jkpo; muru;fs;> ghu;g;gdiuj; jtpu kw;w vtUf;Fk; jiygzpa khl;lhu;fs; vd;W ghuhl;lg; gLtJ xU kughf Mapw;W. ghu;g;gdiug; gzpe;J> mtu;fs; nrhw;gb elg;gJ murupd; cau;e;j gz;ghff; $wg;gl;lJ (gjpw;Wg;gj;J 63).

ghu;g;gdu;fs; J}u jpU\;b ('khrW fhl;rp') cs;stu;fshf kjpf;fg;gl;lhu;fs;. 'nel;bikahu;' vd;W ,J jkpopy; $wg;gl;lJ.

MW njhopy; GupAk; ghu;g; gdupd; topnkhope;J murhz;lhy;> me;j murid ,e;j cyfNk topnkhopAk; vd;whu;fs; (gjpw;Wg; gj;J 24).

ghu;g;gdu;fs; gRg;Nghd;w rhJf;fs; (GwehD}W 9) vd;W Nehf;fg;gl;lhu;fs;.

muru;fSf;F ,ilapy; Nghu; ele;jNghJ gRf;fs;> ngz;fNshL Nru;e;J ghu;g;g du;fSk; ghJfhg;ghd ,lq;fSf;F mDg;gg;gl;lhu;fshk; (GwehD}W 9).

gRtpd; fhk;ig mWj;jtu;> ngz;zpd; fUitf; fiyj;jtu;> ghu;g;gdu;fSf;Ff; nfLjy; nra;jtu; Mfpatu;fSf;Fg; gupfhuk; fpilahnjd;whd; xU Gytd; ('GwehD}W 34). gR> fU (rpR) Kjyhd nky;ypa> Nghw;wj;jf;f> ghJfhf;fj;jf;f> mutizg;Gf;Fupatw;NwhL ghu;g;gdUk; ,izf;fg; gl;ldu;.

ghu;g;gdg; Gytu;fSk;> ghu;g;gdf; fUj;jpaiy cau;e;jjhf Vw;Wf; nfhz;l jkpo;g; Gytu;fSk; ,g;gbg;gl;l ghu;g;gdj; Jjpfis muritfspy; Koq;fpdhu;fs;. tpy;> Nty;> ths;> ahidg;gil> Fjpiug; gil> Nfhl;il> nfhj;jsk; ahtw;iwAk; rhJ Ntlkpl;l rpWghd;ikg; ghu;g;gdu;fs; jq;fSila ghir Gupahj Ntj ke;jpuj;ijf; nfhz;Lk;> mf;fpdp fhupaj;ijf; nfhz;Lk;> Rj;j gupfhur; rlq;Ffisf; nfhz;Lk; mlq;fpg; Nghfr; nra;jhu;fs;. jq;fisj; jpUg;jp nra;jhy;jhd; murDk; jpUg;jpahf ,Uf;f KbAk; vd;gijj; jpUk;gj; jpUk;g Xjpdhu;fs;.

jkpopy; vOe;j Kjy; Ehy; jpUf;Fws;. mJ rkak; rhuhj Ehy;. jpUts;StH flTs; gw;wpAk; Md;kh gw;wpAk; vijAk; nrhy;ytpy;iy.

jpUts;StH fhyj;jpy; itjPf> rkz> gTj;j kjq;fSk;> ,iwtd;> Md;kh> kWgpwg;G Nghd;wtw;iw kWf;Fk; cyfha;jk; kw;Wk; rhq;fpak;> Nahdk;> ieahapfk;> itNrbfk;> kPkhk;ir Nghd;w 'rka' Nfhl;ghLfSk; jkpo; kf;fspilNa gutp ,Ue;jd.

jpUf;Fws; flTs; tho;j;Jg; ghapuj;jpy; Fwpg;gplg;gLk; Mjpgftd;> thywptd;> kyHkpir Vfpdhd;> ,iwtd;> jdf;Ftik ,y;yhd;> mwthop me;jzd;> vz;Fzj;jhd; Nghd;w nrhw;fs; vy;yhk; ty;y> vq;Fk; epiwe;j kdk; nkhop nka;fSf;F vl;lhj xU flTisf; Fwpg;gjhf ,y;iy. khwhf mit rkz rkaf; flTs; mUfidf; Fwpg;gpLtjhfNt nfhs;s Ntz;Lk;. jpUEhw;we;jhjpapy; ,r; nrhw;fs; mUfidf; Fwpf;ff; ifahsg;gl;Ls;sd. jpU.t.c..rpjk;guehjH jpUf;Fwspd; Kjy; ehd;F mjpfhuq;fSk; ,ilr; nrUf;fy; vdf; fUJfpwhH.

jpUf;Fws; Fwpg;gpLk; nja;tk;> NjtH kdpjupy; Nkk;gl;ltHfisNa Fwpf;fpd;wd. Md fhuzj;jpdhy;jhd; jpUts;StH 'nja;te;njhohs;' ' nja;tj;jhy; MfhnjdpDk;' 'NjtH midaH fatH' vd;w nrhy;yhl;rpiag; gad;gLj;JfpwhH.

rq;f fhyj;ij mLj;j ,uz;L Ehw;whz;L fsg;gpuH vd;w ,dj;jtH %Nte;jH  Ml;rpf;F KbT fl;b jkpo;ehl;ilf; ifg;gw;wp MSfpd;wdH. ,tHfs; Ml;rpf; fhyj;j;py; itjPf kjk; nry;thf;F ,of;f rkzKk; gTj;jKk; jiy Jhf;Ffpd;wd.

fp.gp. ,uz;lhk; Ehw;whz;by; ,aw;wg;gl;l ,ul;ilf; fhg;gpaq;fshd rpyg;gjpfhuKk; kzpNkfiyAk; itjPfk;> rkzk;> gTj;jk; jkpo;ehl;by; ed;whf Nt&d;wp tpl;lijAk;> Nfhapy;fs;> gs;spfs;> tpfhiufs; ,Ue;jijAk; mq;F topghL ,lk;ngw;wijAk; vLj;Jf; $wpfpd;wd.

,e;j rka khw;wq;fs; jkpoHfs; itjPf. gTj;j> rkz rkaq;fspy; Vf fhyj;jpy; ,Ue;J te;jijf; fhl;LfpwJ.

rkzKk; gTj;jKk; jkpo; ,yf;fpa tsHr;rpf;Fk; tsj;Jf;Fk; ngUk; gq;fhw;wpd. Ik;ngUk; fhg;gpaq;fSk; IQ;rpWk; fhg;gpaq;fSk; rkz my;yJ gTj;jHfshy; ,aw;wg;gl;lit MFk;.

fsg;gpuH Ml;rpiaj; njhlHe;J gy;ytH njhz;lkz;lyj;ij ifg;gw;wp  fhQ;rpiaj; jiyefuhff; nfhz;L njhz;lMl;rp nra;jhHfs;. gy;ytH Ml;rp fp.gp. 300-900 Mz;Lfs; epiyj;jpUe;jJ. gy;yt kd;dHfspy; ngUk; Gfo;ngw;w Kjyhk; kNfe;jputHkd; ( fp.gp. 610-630)  mg;guJ Kaw;rpahy; rkzj;jpy; ,Ue;J irt rkaj;Jf;F khwpdhd;. mt;thNw ghz;b ehl;il Mz;l ghz;bad; ney;Ntyp ntd;w epd;wrPH neLkhwDk;  Qhdrk;ge;juhy; gTj;j rkaj;jpy; ,Ue;J irt rkaj;Jf;F khw;wg;gl;lhd;.

gy;ytH Ml;rpf; fhyj;jpy;jhd; irtrkak; mg;gH> MSilg; gps;isahH> Re;juH> khzpf;thrfH jiyikapy; gf;jp ,af;fkhf vOr;rp ngw;wJ. ,JNt irt rkaj;jpd; nghw;fhyk; vd;W nrhy;yyhk;. gf;jp ,af;fk; ntWk; czHT G+Htkhd Guhzf; fijfisg; gad;gLj;jp rkz gTj;j kjq;fspd; mwpTG+Htkhd jUf;f jj;Jtq;fisAk; caHe;j xOf;fq;fisAk; Njhw;fbj;jJ. 

'ehkhHf;Fk; Fbay;Nyhk;
  ekid mQ;Nrhk;
Vkhg;Nghk; gpzpawpNahk;
 gzpNth ky;Nyhk;.'

'mQ;RtJkpy;iy  mQ;rtUtJ kpy;iy'

vd;w mg;gupd; tPu Kof;fq;fs; kf;fSf;F rq;ffhy Gw tho;f;ifia epidT+l;l cjtpd NghYk;.

rka FutH ehy;tUk;  Ntj newp tFj;j tHz Ngjj;ij epuhfupf;ftpy;iy. 'gpwg;nghf;Fk; vy;yh capHf;Fk;' vd;w mbg;gilapy; r%fj;ij fl;b vOg;gj; Jzpatpy;iy. ,Ue;Jk;  rhjpgw;wpa mZFKiwapy; itzt Mo;thHfs; Nghy; ,y;yhtpl;lhYk; xU nefpo;r;rpj; jd;ikia rka FutHfs; gpd;gw;wpdhHfs;.

gd;dpU Mo;thHfspy; jPz;lg;glhj ghzH Fyj;jtuhd jpUg;ghzho;thH xUtH vd;gJ Fwpg;gplj;jf;fJ. 'MTupj;Jj; jpd;WiyAk; GiyaNuDk; fq;ifthH rilrq;fuHf;F md;guhfpy; mtH fz;BH ehk; tzq;Fk; nja;tkhNk" vd;gjpy; cs;s 'ck;' Ntw;Wik cUG rhjpia kWf;ftpy;iy. rhjpfis Vw;Wf; nfhz;L mtw;Wf;fpilNa rkurk; fhz Kaw;rpg;gjhfNt cs;sJ. mjpy;$l mtHfs; ntw;wpngwtpy;iy vd;gNj cz;ikahFk;.

mNj fhyfl;lj;jpy; Mo;thHfs; jpUkhy; topghl;il gf;jp kag;gLj;jp itzt kWkyHr;rpf;F tpj;jpl;lhHfs;.

,iwtid gf;jpNahL cskhu Nerpj;jhy; tPLNgW milayhk; vd irtk;-itztk;  ,uz;Lk; giw rhw;wpd.

jkpoHfsJ rq;f fhy mfj;Jiw ,yf;fzj;jpy; tUk; jiytd; jiytp cyfpay; cwTKiw Njthu jpUthrf jpt;tpagpuge;jq;fspy; fhjw;Rit jJk;Gk; nja;tPf ehafd; ehafp cwthf cUkhw;wk; nra;ag;gl;lJ. md;gpide;jpizfshfpa GzHjy;> gpupjy;> ,uq;fy;> ,Uj;jy;> Cly; ,iwtd; NkNyw;wpg; ghlg;gl;lJ. khzpf;fthrfupd; jpUntk;ghit> Mz;lhspd; jpUg;ghit ,jw;F ey;y rhd;whFk;.

,y;ywj;jpy; ,Ue;J nfhz;Nl ,iwtd; jpUg;ghjk; milayhk; vdr; nrhy;yg;gl;lJ. 'mHr;rid ghl;NlahFk; Mjyhy; kz;Nky; vk;ik nrhw;wkpopy; ghLf' vd;w Kof;fk; Kd;itf;fg;gl;lJ.

Nts;tpf;Fg; gjpy; ePUk; G+TNk topghl;Lf;F cfe;j nghUl;fshff; nfhs;sg;gl;ld.

jkpo;nkhopf;F Vw;wk; nfhLf;FkhW 'ey;ypirahy; ehSk; jkpo;gug;Gk; Qhdrk;ge;jd;' vd;W rk;ge;jH jd;idj; jhNd $wpf; nfhz;lhH. jkpo; ,irAk; gujf; fiyAk; ,iwtd; Gfo;ghlg; gad;gLj;jg;gl;ld.

,jdhy; fhjy; ntWg;igAk; NghH ntWg;igAk; fiy ntWg;igAk;  %yhkhff; nfhz;l 'Gw' gTj;j rkaz kjq;fis irtKk; itztKk; Gwq;fz;ld. rkzk; gTj;jk; ,uz;Lk; jq;fs; nry;thf;if ,oe;jd.

mNj rkak; rkzk; gTj;jk; ,uz;bd; nry;thf;fpdhy; itjPf kjj;jpy; fhzg;gl;l capHg;gyp epWj;jg;gl;lJ> Nts;tp mUfp G+irf;F Kd;Dupik toq;fg;gl;lJ.

gTj;jk; rkzk; ,uz;bd; tPo;r;rpf;F ngUk; gq;F tfpj;jtH jpUQhdrk;ge;jH. ,jdhy; mtH 'gurka Nfhsup' vdg; Nghw;wg;gl;lhH.

jpUQhdrk;ge;jH gTj;j Njuuhd Gj;je;jpNahL elj;jpa rka thjj;jpy; 'gTj;jd; jiy cUz;L tPo;f' vd ntFz;Liuf;f mt;thNw ,btpOe;J jiy mWgl;L tpOe;jJ  vd ngupaGuhzk; $WfpwJ.

,J cz;ikahdhy; ,e;jr; nra;jp gf;jp ,af;f fhyj;jpy; irt rkak; gTj;jj;NjhL jj;Jt mbg;gilapy; jUf;f thjk; Gupa Kbahj epiyapy; ,Ue;jijf; fhl;LfpwJ.

khzpf;fthrfH fhyj;jpYk; (fp.gp. 9Mk; Ehw;whz;L) gTj;jj;Jf;F vjpuhd thjj;jpy; ,yq;ifapy; ,Ue;J nrd;w gTj;j Njuiu jj;Jt mbg;gilapy; nty;y Kbahj epiyapy; ehkfspd; Jizahy; gTj;jHfis Cikahf;fpdhH vd jpUtpisahly; Guhzk; Gfy;fpwJ.

,tw;wpd; gpd;dNu irt rkaj;Jf;F jj;Jt mbg;gilapy; rpj;jhe;jk; xd;iw Njhw;Wtpf;f Ntz;ba Njit Vw;gl;lJ NghYk;.

fp.gp. 12 Mk; Ehw;whz;by; Njhd;wpa ngUq;fhg;gpakhd ngupaGuhzNk> 13Mk; Ehw;whz;by; irt rpj;jhe;jk; xU jj;Jt newpahf tsHtjw;F mbg;gilahf mike;jJ. Nrf;fpohH Re;juH (8Mk; Ehw;whz;L) vOjpa jpUj;njhz;lj; njhifiaAk; ek;gpahz;lhH   ek;gp (10Mk; Ehw;whz;L) vOjpa jpUj;njhz;lH jpUte;jhjp ,uz;ilAk; gpd;gw;wpNa ngupaGuhzk; ,aw;wg;gl;lJ.

gf;jpnewp fhyj;jpy; Njhd;wpa ,yf;fpaj;ij ek;gpahz;lhH ek;gp gd;dpUjpUKiw tbtpy; tFj;Jk; njhFj;Jk; nfhLj;jhH. ,jpy; irt Njhj;jpuq;fSk; (,iwtd; Gfo; ghLjy;)   rhj;jpuq;fSk; (jj;Jt tpsf;fTiu) NrHf;fg;gl;ld.

rka FutHfshd rk;ge;jH> mg;gH> Re;juH ghba Njthu jpUthrfq;fs; Kjy; vl;Lj; jpUKiwahfj; njhFf;fg;gl;ld. xd;gjhk; jpUKiw xU njhif Ehy;. jpU%yH vOjpa jpUke;jpuk; 10 Mk; jpUKiw. Ntjk; Mfkk; ,uz;LNk ,iwtd; mUshy; ntspg;gl;lit vd Kjd; Kjypy; $wpatH jpU%yNu. rpj;jhe;jk; vd;w nrhy;iy Kjd;Kjypy; gad;gLj;jpatUk; mtNu. gjpndhuhk; jpUKiwAk; xU njhif Ehy;. gjpndhU mbfshHfs; ghba 39 Ehy; ,jpy; mlq;Ffpd;wd. gd;dpuz;lhk; jpUKiw Nrf;fpshupd; ngupa Guhzk;.

rq;fuupd; mj;itjk; (gukhj;khTk; Mj;khTk; ,uz;ly;y)

,uhkDrupd; (12Mk; Ehw;whz;L) tprpl;lhJitjk;>

kj;Jtupd; Jitjk; (13Mk; Ehw;whz;L) xd;Wf;F xd;W Kuzhdit.

cyfKk; capHfSk; nghUs;fSk; mepj;jpak; my;yJ khia vd;fpd;w rq;fuupd; Ntjhe;ij tprpl;lhJitjk; kWf;fpwJ.

kj;Jtupd; Jitjk; (,Uik) Md;khTk; ,iwtDk; NtW NtW vd;fpwJ.

nka;fz;lhupd; 'Rj;j mj;itjk;' capUf;Fk; flTSf;Fk; cs;s cwit tpsf;Fk; rq;fuupd; mj;itjj;jpw;F Gjpa nghUs; nfhLf;fpwJ.

jpUKiwf;F xg;ghf 13Mk; Ehw;whz;by; nka;fz;lhH vOjpa rpj;jhe;j Ehyhd rptQhd NghjKk; mjw;F mtuJ jiy khzhf;fH  mUze;jp rpthr;rhupahH vOjpa  rptQhdrpj;jpahH vd;w ciuEhYk; Fwpg;gplj;jf;fd. nka;fz;l rhj;jpuk; vd toq;Fk; rpj;jhe;j rhjpuk; gjpdhd;F MFk;.

mUze;jp rpthr;rhupahH vOjpa rptQhdrpj;jpahH vd;w Ehypy; gugf;fk; vd;w gFjpapy; 14 kjq;fs; fz;bf;fg;gLfpd;wd.

mjpy; gTj;jk; Kjy; ,lk; tfpf;fpwJ. rq;fuH (fp.gp. 7k; Ehw;whz;L) vt;thW gTj;jj;ijg; Gwq;fhz gTj;j jj;Jtq;fisg; gad;gLj;jpathW mUze;jpAk; gTj;j msitfis (jHf;fq;fis) gad;gLj;jp ,Uf;fpwhH.

irt rpj;jhe;jk; ehy;Ntjq;fisg; nghJthfTk; Mfkq;fis rpwg;ghfTk; nfhs;fpwJ. Ntjq;fs; Mfkq;fs; ,uz;Lk; rptngUkhdhy; mUsg;gngw;wJ vd;gJ irt rpe;jhj;jpd; mbg;gilf; nfhs;if. khzpf;fthrfH Mfkq;fNs ,iwtd; vd;fpwhH. Mfkq;fs; rupif> fpupif> Qhdk;> Nahfk; vd;Dk; ehd;F nghUl;fs;gw;wpr; nrhy;fpwJ.

irt rpj;jhe;jk; -

    (1) gjp (flTs;)

    (2) gR (capHfs;)

    (3) ghrk; (Nghfg; nghUl;fs;)

    (4) Mztk; (mwpahik)

    (5) khia (mz;lg;gilg;gpw;fhd xU %yk; nghUs;. xd;iw Ntwhff; fhl;Lk; xU kaf;fk; vd;W Ntjhe;jk; $Wtij irt rpj;jhe;jk; xg;Gf; nfhs;tjpy;iy)

    (6) fd;kk; (Kd;tpidg;gad;) Mfpa MWk; MjpAk; me;jKk; ,y;yh epj;jpag; nghUl;fs; vdr; nrhy;fpwJ.

,JNt irt rpj;jhe;jj;jpd; mbg;gilf; nfhs;if.

,iwtidg; gjp vd;Wk;> mehjpahdtd; vd;Wk; mtDf;F xU rf;jp Nghd;wJ 'khia' vd;Wk; (,J NtW rq;fuH nrhy;Yk; khia NtW) cyfq;fs;> nghUl;fs;> capHfs; Njhd;Wtjw;F fhuzkhdJ khia vd;Wk;> mk; khiaAk; Mjpaw;wJ vd;Wk; capHfSk; epiyahdit vd;W NkYk; mJ $WfpwJ. capUf;Fk; ,iwtDf;Fk; cs;s njhlHG xd;wha;> Ntwha;> cldha; cs;sJ. capH ,iwtdy;y vd;gJ rpj;jhe;jf; nfhs;if. ,iwtNd capH vd;gJ Ntjhe;jf; nfhs;if.

gjpdhwhk; Ehw;whz;L njhlf;fk; tzpfj;Jf;fhf ehL gpbf;f te;j NghHj;Jf;NfaH> xy;yhe;jH. Mq;fpNyaH tUifia mLj;J fpwpj;jtk; jkpo;ehl;bYk; <oj;jpYk; gutpd. rkak; gug;g jkpo; gbj;j nwhNgHl; b. nehgpyp> rPfd; ghy;F> tPukhKdptH> lhf;lH fy;Lnty; Nghd;NwhH jkpo; ,yf;fpaj;Jf;F Gjpa tdg;Gk; tbtKk; nfhLj;jhHfs;.

,e;jpahtpy; nkhfhyaH Ml;rp fhuzkhf ,];yhk; jkpo;ehl;by; gutpaJ. gpwg;ghy; jkpouhf ,Ue;jhYk; rkaj;jhy; jq;fis ,];yhkpaH vd ,tHfs; jq;fis mwpKfk; nra;J nfhs;fpwhHfs;. ,];yhkpaupd; Njrpa milahsk; nkhop my;y kjk; vd;gJ Fwpg;gplj;jf;fJ.

,JfhWk; $wpatw;why; njhy;fhg;gpa jkpoHfspilNa nja;t tzf;fk; ,Ue;jJ. Mdhy; flTs; ek;gpf;ifNah rkaNkh ,Uf;ftpy;iy. rq;f fhyj;jpy; Ntj newpAk; flTs; ek;gpf;ifAk; fhy;nfhs;s Muk;gpj;jd. ,Ue;Jk; mikg;G Kiwahf epWtg;gl;l (established) rkak; ,Uf;ftpy;iy.

rq;fk; kUtpa fhg;gpa fhyj;jpy; jkpoHfs; itjPf> rkz> gTj;j kjj;ij jOtp ,Ue;jhHfs;.

gf;jp,af;f fhyj;jpy; Mupaupd; Ntjnewp rq;f fhy jiytd; jiytp cwitAk; eLfy; tzf;fj;ijAk; cs;thq;fpf; nfhz;L rkz gTj;j kjr; nry;thf;if rha;j;jd.

gpw;fhy gy;ytH Nru Nrho ghz;baH Ml;rpapy; irtKk; itztKk; tsHr;rpaile;jd. mNj rkak; rhjpg;ghFghLk; $Hik mile;jd.

,d;W ,e;J kjj;jpd; cl;gpupthd irt rkaNk ngUk;ghd;ik jkpoHfspd; rkakhf ,Uf;fpwJ. ,Ue;Jk; gf;jpnewp fhyj;jpy; fhzg;gl;l topghl;L Kiw> rkj;Jtk;> jkpo;nkhopapy; mHr;ridAk; ,d;W fhzg;gltpy;iy. ,jdhy; jkpo;kf;fSf;Fk; irt rkaj;Jf;Fk; ,ilapy; xU ,ilntsp  ,Ue;J tUfpwJ. ,jdhy; kjkhw;wk; rpwpa mstpy; eilngWfpwJ. fhyg; Nghf;fpy; Jhthdk; ngUk; Jspfshf khwf; $Lk;. Irt kjk; jkpo;nkhop tsHr;rpf;F jkpopd gz;ghl;L vOr;r;pf;F jilahf ,Uf;fpwJ.

,f;fl;Liuf;Fg; gad;gLj;jg;gl;l Jiz Ehy;fs;

    (1) jkpoH kjk; - nkhopQhapW Qh. NjtNeag; ghthzH

    (2) rpt topghL - jp. goepag;gdhH

    (3) jkpoH rka tuyhW - lhf;lH M. NtYg;gps;is

    (4) irtrkaj; Njhw;wKk; tsHr;rpAk; - lhf;lH b.gp. rpj;jypq;fk;

    (5) mfehDhW

    (6) GwehDhW

    (7) rpyg;gjpfhuk;

    (8) ts;Stupd; nka;apay; - F.F. Mde;jd;

    (9) jkpo;nkhop ,yf;fpa tuyhW - lhf;lH kh. ,uhrkhzpf;fdhH

    (10) jkpof tuyhWk; gz;ghLk; - lhf;lH V. Rthkpehjd;

    (11) jkpo; ,yf;fpa tuyhW -jkpoz;zy;

    (12) jkpo; ,yf;fpa tuyhW - vk;.MH. milf;fyrhkp

    (13) jkpoH ehupfKk; gz;ghLk; - lhf;lH m. jl;rzh%Hj;jp

    (14) rpyg;gjpfhuj; jkpofk; - jkpowpQH rhkp rpjk;gudhH

    (15) njhy;fhg;gpaj; jkpoH - jkpowpQH rhkp rpjk;gudhH 

    (16) rkzKk; jkpOk;;- kapiy rPdp Ntq;flrhkp

    (17) gz;ilj; jkpoH tho;Tk; topghLk;- fyhepjp ifyhrgjp

    (18) nja;tj; jkpo; - Nfh. G+tuhfd;